PRINCETON,    N.    J. 


Skelf. 


Division ......  jS»^.  / . . .  \,. . . . 

Section ./../. 

Number #..KV.^ 


THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOP/EDIA 


AND 


HT  HO  1)0  LOGY 


BASED  ON  HAGENBACH  AND  KRAUTH, 


BY 

REVERE    FRANKLIN  "WEIDNER,     M.    A., 

Professor  of  Thcolo^ry   in  the   Theological  Scsnhiary  of  the    Scandinavian  Evangelical 

Lutheran  Aiigiistana  Synod  at  Rock  Island,  III.;    Author  of  "Comtnentary 

on    Mark,"    etc.;     Meniher    of  the    American    Oriental   Society: 

Member    of  the    Society    of    Biblical    Literature    and 

Exevesis,  etc. 


PART  I. 
INTRODUCTION  AND  EXEGETICAL  THEOLOGY. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

H.    B.    GARNER,    710    ARCH    STREET, 

Successor  to  Smith.  English  &  Co. 

1885. 


C  O  F  y  R I  (i  H  T    1  S  S  o  . 

BY 

REVERE     FRANKLIN     WEIDNER. 


AUGUSTANA      BOOK      CONCERN, 

PRINTERS. 

Rock  Island,  111. 


TO 

my  two  teachers 

who  first  opened  to  me  the  beauties  of  the 

Original  Languages  of  Scripture, 

rev.  frederick  a.  muhlenberg,  d.  d.,  professor  of  greek 

IN  THE  University  of  Philadelphia, 

AND 
REV.  JULIUS  W.  MANN,  D.  D.,   PROFESSOR  OF  HEBREW 

IN  THE  Theological  Seminary  of  the 

Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  at  Philadelphia, 

this  book  is 

respectfully  dedicated. 


In  Preparation. 

Part  II.  Historical  Theology. 
Part  III.  Systematic  Theology. 
Part  IV.    Practical  Theology. 


PREFACE. 

This  book  has  been  prepared  to  meet  the  wants  of  theo- 
logical students,  and  is  published  because  we  wish  to  use  it 
as  a  text-book  in  our  classes,  instead  of  delivering  oral 
lectures.  It  aims  to  present  a  summary  view  of  what  is  em- 
braced in  theological  knowledge.  Its  design  is  not  so  much 
to  teach  Theology  as  to  show  where  Theology  is  taught.  We 
have  tried  to  avoid,  on  the  one  hand,  a  minuteness  which  im- 
pairs unity,  and  on  the  other,  a  condensation  which  runs  into 
obscurity  and  dryness. 

Though  German  Theology  is  especially  rich  in  this  de- 
partment, very  little  has  been  published  in  English.  The 
writer  is  greatly  indebted  to  the  Manuscript  Lectures  of 
Charles  P.  Krauth,  d.  d.,  ll.d.,  late  Norton  Professor 
of  Theology  in  the  Eva7igelical  Lutheran  Theological  Semi- 
7iary  at  Philadelphia,  who  for  many  years  lectured  on  Theo- 
logical Encyclopedia  to  his  students.  Dr.  Krauth  followed 
Hagenbach  as  a  general  guide,  but  his  lectures  were  far  su- 
perior in  style,  spirit,  and  practicalness. 

These  pages  are  now  sent  forth  with  the  earnest  prayer  that 
they  may  not  only  be  of  value  to  students  of  Theology,  but 
also  to  those  of  the  clergy,  who  continue  their  studies  amidst 
the  engrossing  cares  of  active  pastoral  work. 

R.   F.    W, 

AUGUSTANA  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY, 

Trinity  Monday,  June  1, 1885, 
Rock  Island,  111. 


CONTENTS. 


Intkoduction. 

Sec.  Page 

/.  Definition  of  the  Science,                   ...../ 

2.  Place  in  the  Study  of  Theology,    .  .           .           .           .              S 

3.  Methodology,     ........  4 

4.  Division  and  Arrangement,  .           .           .           .           .              4 

5.  The  Choice  of  a  Profession, 13 

6.  The  Motiues  for  entering  the  Ministry,    ....  14 

7.  The  Character  of  the  Ministerial  Office,  .  .  .  .16 
S.  What  the  Ministry  teaches, — Religion  and  its  nature,  .  .17 
9  Historical  forms  of  Religion,    .         .           .           .           .           .18 

10.  Protestantism  and  Romanism,      .....  18 

11.  Character  of  Ministers  as  religious  teachers,  .           .           .19 

12.  Religion  as  Knowledge,  Activity,  and  Emotion,  .  .           .            19 
18.  The  Three-fold  Task  of  the  Minister,         .          .          .          .20 

14.  The  Minister  as  related  to  the  Church,    ....  21 

15.  The  Church  and  Theology,      ......       21 

16.  Theological  Study,  .......  22 

17.  The  Theological  School.— Theologians  and  Pastors,  .          .      22 

18.  Relation  of  the  Theologian  to  the  School  and  the  Church,        .  23 

19.  The  University  and  College,    .  .           .           .           .           .23 

20.  How  to  use  the  Advantages  of  Education,  .          .          .           24 

21.  Formation  of  Character,        ......      27 

Fart  1.    Theological  Encyclopedia,  General  Part. 

22.  Theology  as  a  Positive  Science,    .....  37 

23.  Theology  as  Theory  and  Art,  .           .           .          .          .37 

24.  Theology  in  its  Historical  Development,  .          .          .           37 

25.  Relation  of  Theology  to  Preparatory  Culture,  .          .          .38 

26.  The  Relative  Importance  of  the  Preparatory  Sciences,  .           38 


VIII 

Sec. 
21. 
28. 
29. 
SO. 
SI. 
S2. 
3S. 


Page 
Relation  of  Theology  to  the  Fine  Arts  and  to  General  Culture,  .  40 
The  Relation  of  Theology  to  Philosophy,  .  .  .  41 

The  different  Systems  of  Philosophy  as  related  to  Theology,  .  49 
The  various  Branches  of  Philosophy  in  their  relation  to  Theology,  52 
Predominant  Theological  Tendencies,  .  .  .  .57 

The  Religious  and  Scientific  Tendency  in  Theology,      .  .  58 

The  Attitude  of  the  student  towards  these  Tendencies,       .  .       61 


Part  II.    Theological  ENCYCLor.EDiA,  Spe(;ial  Paut. 

34.  The  Divisions  of  Theology,           .....            65 

I.    ExEttKTicAL  Theology. 

55.  Definition  of  Exegetical  Theology,     .  :          .           .           .66 

56.  Of  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  the  object  of  Exegesis,  .           .            66 

57.  The  Relation  of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  New,       .  .           .67 

58.  Tht  Old  Testament, 68 

39.  The  New  Testament, 69 

40.  Sciences  auxiliary  to  Exegesis,    .....  69 

41.  The  Original  Languages  of  the  Bible,  .           .           .           .70 

42.  The  Hebrew  Language,       ......  71 

43.  The  other  Semitic  Dialects,     ......       78 

44.  The  IMlenistic-Greek  Language,  ....            88 

45.  Biblical  Archceology,    .  .          .          .           .           .          .       91 

46.  Biblical  Introduction  and  Canonics,        .  .          .          .           Ill 
4  h  Biblical  Criticism,        .......      110 

48.  Biblical  Hermeneuties,      ......  123 

49.  Exegesis,  ........     156 

50.  Method  of  Exegesis,        ......  158 

Index. 


Theological  Encyclopedia 

AND 

Methodology. 


0"crTi_ii:isrE    ISTotes. 


INTRODUCTION. 
SECTION   I. 

DEFINITION  OF  THE    SCIENCE. 

Encyclopoedia  of  Theology  is  that  branch  of  the  theological 
science  itself,  which  presents  a  summary  view  of  what  is  em- 
braced in  theological  knowledge.  It  explains  the  inner  organi- 
zation of  the  science  of  Theology,  and  maps  out  its  divisions 
as  a  grand  whole,  and  shows  them  in  their  relations  to  one 
another.  It  introduces  us  to  Theology,  whose  acquaintance 
it  will  take  us  years  to  cultivate.  Its  design  is  not  so  much  to 
teach  Theology  as  to  show  you  where  you  will  find  Theology 
taught. 

Derivation  of  word.  How  distinguished  from  EncyelojyMia 
liritannica,  Johnson's  Cyc^opoidia,  Kitto's  Cydopvtdia  of  Biblical 
Literature,  Sehaft'-Herzog's  En.cydopwdia  of  Religious  Knowledge. 
Importance  of  study.  Theological  Encyclopaedia  a  branch  of  Uni- 
versal Encyclopaedia.  Importance  of  obtaining  a  general  idea  of 
the  range  of  human  knowledge.  The  recognition  of  the  organic 
whole  of  the  sciences  must  precede  the  definite  pursuit  of  a  spe- 
cialty. 


2  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

LITERATURE.* 

Among  the  writings  of  the  Early  Church  Fathers  of 
special  value  are : 

1.  Chrysostom's  Six  Books  o?i  the  Priesthood,  written 
about  A.  D.  385.  It  is  worth  reading  in  the  original  Greek. 
Translated  into  English,  German,  Swedish,  etc.  The  best  En- 
glish translation  is  by  B.  Harris  Cowper.  London,  1866. 

In  this  celebrated  treatise  Chrysostom  portrays  the  theoreti- 
cal and  practical  qualifications,  the  exalted  duties,"^  responsibilities 
and  honors  of  the  ministerial  office.  "Nevertheless  the  book  as 
a  whole  is  unsatisfactory.  A  comparison  of  it  with  the  ''Re- 
formed Pastof  of  Baxter,  which  is  far  deeper  and  richer  in  all 
that  pertains  to  subjective  experimental  Christianity  and  the  pro- 
per care  of  souls,  would  result  emphatically  in  favor  of  the  En- 
glish Protestant  Church  of  the  seventeenth  century."    (Schaif). 

2.  Augustine's  Four  Books  on  Christian  Doctrine,  written 
about  A.  D.  397.  Translated  into  nearly  all  the  European 
languages.  The  best  English  translation  is  by  Professor  Shaw, 
published  by  T.  &  T.  Clark,  Edinburgh. 

A  compendium  of  exegetical  theology  for  instruction  in  the 
interpretation  of  the  Scripture.  The  fourth  book  added  in  a.  d.  426 
is  one  of  the  best  treatises  on  Rhetoric  extant. 

The  best  recent  works  are : 

3.  Hagenbach's  Encyklop'ddie und Methodologie der  Theo- 
logischen  Wissenschafte^i.  Tenth  edition,  revised  by  Prof. 
Kautzsch.     Leipsic,  1880. 

An  excellent  work,  lately  translated  into  English,  and  edited 
by  Drs.  Crooks  and  Hurst.    New  York:  E^hillips  and  Hunt,  1884. 

Valuable  additions  to  the  Bibliography  have  been  made  by 
adding  the  titles  of  English  and  American  books  in  each  depart- 
ment, but,  on  the  whole,  the  work  is  carelessly  edited,  and  for  the 
inexperienced  student,  the  literature  given  is  no  guide  whatever, 
for  the  very  reason  that  no  selection  is  indicated. 

4.  Zockler's  Handbuch  der  Theologischen  Wissenschaften 
in  Encyklopddischer  Darstellung.  3  vols.  Pp.  684,  772,  612. 
Nordhngen.     1883,  1884. 

This  voluminous  work  is  a  most  valuable  contribution  to  the 
Science  of  Theology.    Dr.  Zockler  has  been  assisted  by  some  of  the 

*)  It  is  not  the  writer's  aim  to  give  a  complete  Bibliography  of  eacii  subject.  Only 
the  very  best  books  will  be  selected.  For  a  good  list  of  works  on  Encycloixedia  of 
Theology,  compare  article  in  Schafif-Herzog's  Encycloixedia.  A  fuller  list  is  given 
in  the  works  of  Hagenbach  and  Zockler,  mentioned  below.  The  article  in  Herzog's 
Eeal-Encyklopcedie  was  originally  written  by  Hagenbacli,  and  re-written  for  the 
second  edition,  by  Dr.  Plitt. 


PLACE  IN  THE  STUDY   OF  THEOLOGY.  6 

most  eminent  scholars  of  Europe,  among  whom  we  may  specially 
mention  Cremer  of  Greifswald,  Harnaek  of  Dorpat,  Kuehel  ot 
Tuebingen,  Luthardt  of  Leipsic,  v.  Hcheele  of  Upsala,  ^track  of 
Berlin  and  v.  Zezsolnvitz  of  Erlangen.  A  translation  of  this  work 
is  announced  by  T.  &  T.  Clark  of  Edinburgh,  to  be  published  m  the 
Foreig7i  Theological  Library. 

5.  Rabig-er's  Theologik  oder  Encyklop'ddie  der  Theologie. 

Leipsic,  1880. 

A  good  work,  but  of  a  speculative,  critical  and  rationalistic  ten- 
dency.   It  is  announced  in  Clark's  Foreign  Theological  Library, 
Books  on  this  subject  in  English   are    scarce.     We  may 
mention : 

6.  Bickersteth's  The  Christian  Shideni.  With  a  full  list 
of  Books  on  Religion.     Fourth  edition,   corrected.     London, 

1844.  ^ 

Designed  to  assist  Christians  in  general  in  acquiring  religious 
knowledge.    Destitute  of  scientific  form,  but  eminently  practical. 

7.  Briggs'  Biblical  Study.  Its  principles,  methods  and 
history,  together  with  a  Catalogue  of  Books  of  Reference. 
New  York,  1883. 

8.  Hurst's  Bibliotheca  Theologica.  A  select  and  classified 
Bibliography  of  Theology  and  general  Religious  Literature. 
New  York,  1883. 

9.  M'Clintock's  Lectures  on  Theological  Encyclopaedia 
and  Methodology.  Cincinnati,  1883. 

Very  incomplete. 

In  Swedish  but  few  works  have  appeared.  We  may  men- 
tion : 

10.  Reuterdahl's  Inledning  till  Theologien.    Lund,  1837. 

11.  Eklund's     Om  Theologiens  Begrepp  och  Inledning. 

Lund,  1874. 

Prof.  Eklund  will  shortly  publish  a  new  and  much  enlarged 
work,  with  a  copious  literature. 

SECTION   II. 

PLACE  IN  THE   STUDY  OF  THEOLOGY. 

Its  position  is  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  theo- 
logical study.  It  precedes,  as  an  oudine  map  accompanies 
a  geography.  It  follows  as  a  review.  It  is  the  handbook  of 
theological  study  through  life. 


4  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

In  the  presentation  of  this  science,  two  errors  are  to  be  avoided, 
—the  one,  a  minuteness  which  impairs  unity,— the  other,  a  conden- 
sation which  runs  into  obscurity  and  dryness,— the  two  errors  of 
the  too  much  and  the  too  little.  Bacon  of  Yerulam  compares  the 
mechanical  gatherers  to  ants,  the  idealistic  dreamers  to  spiders, 
the  true  servants  of  science  to  the  bee,  gathering-  rich  stores  from 
every  source.  The  vice  of  the  olden  time  was  the  vice  of  the  ant. 
the  vice  of  modern  thinkers,  that  of  the  spider,  while  the  bee  is 
only  too  rare  in  both. 

SECTION   III. 

METHODOLOGY. 

Methodology  is  the  practical  application  of  Encyclopaedia  ; 
for  a  true  view  of  the  nature  and  connection  of  a  science  leads 
to  a  right  treatment  of  it.  Introductory  Encyclopaedia,  the 
more  it  recognizes  its  true  problem,  becomes  more  and  more 
in  its  own  nature  methodologic  in  its  character. 

SECTION   IV. 

DIVISION  AND    ARRANGEMENT. 

In  our  method  of  treatment,  we  will  follow,  in  general,  the 
plan  of  Hagenbach,  with  certain  modifications  and  additions. 

Our  aim  will  be  to  prepare  a  work  that  will  be  of  special 
value  to  students  of  Theology  as  well  as  to  those  of  the  clergy, 
who  continue  their  studies  amidst  the  engrossing  cares  of 
active  pastoral  work.  We  will  seek,  on  the  one  hand,  to  give 
a  select  list  of  the  most  suitable  text-books  on  the  various 
branches  of  Theology,  and  on  the  other,  also  to  designate  the 
best  works  on  special  topics,  for  more  advanced  study. 

Hagenbach  presents  his  System  of  Encyclopaedia  in  114 
sections,  as  follows : 

INTRODUCTION. 
Sections  1—21. 
§§  1—4.    Definition  of  Encyclopaedia. 
§§  5—11.    Choice  of  a  Profession. 
§§  12,  13.    Keligion. 
§  14.    Christianity. 

§§  15,  16.    The  Church  and  Theology. 
§  17.    The  Theological  School  and  the  Ministry. 
§  18.    Relation  of  the  Ministry  to  the  Theological  School  and 

to  the  Church. 
§§  19,  20.    General  Education.      The  College  and  Universitv. 
§  21.    Formation  of  Character. 


SYSTEM  OF  HAGENBACH.  5 

I.  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA.     GENERAL  PART. 

Its  external  Relations  to  the  other  Sciences,  and  the 
different  Tendencies  in  it.    §s  22-33. 

§  22.    Theology  as  a  positive  Science. 

§  23.    Theology  as  an  Art, 

§  24.    Theology  in  its  historical  development. 

§§  25,  26.    Kelation  of  Theology  to  preparatory  culture. 

§  27.    Kelation  of  Theology  to  the  Fine  Arts  and  to  general 

culture. 
§§  28—30,    Relation  of  Theology  to  Philosophy. 
§§  31,  32.    Predominant  Theological  Tendencies. 
§  33.    The  Relation  of  the  Student  to  these  Tendencies. 
Appendix.    History  and  Literature  of  Theological  Encyclopaedia. 

II.  SPECIAL  PART  OF  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPi€DIA. 

Of  the  Departments  of  Theology  and  their 
mutual  Relations.    §§  34—114. 
§  34.    Division. 

1.      EXEGETICAL    THEOLOGY.      §§   35—56. 

§  35.  Exegetical  Theology. 

§  36.  Of  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  the  object  of  Exegesis. 

§  37.  Division.    Relation  of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  New. 

S.  The  Old  Testament. 

d.  The  New  Testament. 

3.  Auxiliary  Sciences  to  Exegesis. 

1.  The  Original  Languages  of  the  Bible. 

2.  The  Hebrew  Language. 

3.  The  Semitic  Dialects. 

4.  The   Hellenistic-Greek  Dialect.     The  New   Testament 
Idiom. 

§  45,    Knowledge  of  Things.    Biblical  Archaeology. 

§  46.    Biblical  Isagogics.    Canonics. 

§§  47,  48.    Biblical  Criticism, 

§§  49,  50.    Textual  Criticism  and  Higher  Criticism, 

§  51.    Relation  of  Criticism  to  Exegesis. 

§  52.    Hermeneutics, 

§§  53—55.    Exegesis. 

§  56.    Method  of  Exegesis  and  Exegetical  Helps. 

2.     HISTORICAL    THEOLOGY.     §§  57—78. 

§  57.    Historical  Theology. 

§  58.    Sacred  History. 

§  59.    History  of  the  People  of  Israel. 

§  60.    Life  of  Jesus. 

§  61.    The  Lives  of  the  Apostles  and  the  Founding  of  the 
Church. 

§  62.    The  Doctrine  of  the  Bible  in  its  historical  form  and  de- 
velopment. 

a)  Biblical  Dogmatics. 
6)  History  of  Dogmas, 
c)  Biblical  Psychology. 

§§  63,  64.    Church  History. 

§  65.    Epochs  of  Church  History. 

§  66.    Necessary  qualifications  of  the  Church  Historian. 


6  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

§  67.    Method    of    Studying-    Church    History.     History    and 

Literature  of  Church  History. 
§  68.    Auxiliary   Sciences   to   the   Study   of  Church  History. 
§  69.    Special  Departments  of  Historical  Theology. 
§§  70—73.    History  of  Dogmas. 
§  74.    Patristics  and  Symbolics. 
§  75.   .Patristics. 
§  76.    Symbolics. 
§  77.    Ecclesiastical  Archaeology. 
§  78.    Statistics. 

3.      SYSTEMATIC    THEOLOGY.      §§   79—95. 

§  79.    Systematic  Theology. 

§  80.    Dogmatics. 

§  81.    Apologetics  and  its  relation  to  Dogmatics. 

§  82.    Polemics  and  Irenics. 

§  83.    Method  of  Dogmatics. 

§  84.    Of  the  article  De  Beo. 

§  85.    Of  Man.    Anthropology. 

§  86.    Of  the  Person  of  Christ.    Christology. 

§  87.    Of  Salvation.      Soteriology. 

§  88.    Of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Church  and  the  Sacraments. 

§  89.    Of  the  Last  Things.    Eschatology. 

§  90.    Of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  of  Predestination. 

§  91.  Orthodoxy  and  Heterodoxy.  History  and  Literature  of 
Dogmatics. 

§§  92—94.  Christian  Ethics.  History  and  Literature  of  Chris- 
tian Ethics. 

§  95.    Systematic  Theology,  in  its  order  of  Study. 

4.      PRACTICAL    THEOLOGY.     §§  96—114. 

§§  96,  97.    Practical  I'heology. 

§  98.    History  and  Literature  of  Practical  Theology. 

§§  99,  100.    Catechetics. 

§  101.    Methodology  of  Catechetics.    History  and  Literature. 

§§  102,  103.    Theory  of  Public  Worship.    Liturgies. 

§  104.    The  Acts  of  Public  Worship  and  their  relation  to  Art. 

§  105.    Methodology  of  Liturgies.      History  and  Literature. 

§§  106,  107.    Homiletics. 

§  108.    Methodology  of  Homiletics.    History  and  Literature. 

§  109,    Pastoral  Theology. 

§  110.  Auxiliary  Sciences  to  Pastoral  Theology.  Pedagogics, 
etc. 

§  111.  Methodology  of  Pastoral  Theology.  History  and  Lite- 
rature. 

§  112.    Church  Government.    History  and  Literature. 

§  113.    Methodological  Summary  of  Theological  Science. 

§  114.    Progress  in  Theological  Knowledge  necessary. 

The  work  of  Dr.  Zockler,  already  referred  to,  is  of  a  far 
wider  scope  than  that  of  Hagenbach.  The  Introduction  or 
Foundation,  as  Dr.  Zockler  calls  it,  embraces  117  large  octavo 
pages,  and  is  presented  under  twelve  sections,  under  the 
general  title  of 


SYSTEM  OF  ZOCKLER.  7 

THEOLOGICAL.   SCIENCE  IN  ITS  HISTORICAL    DEVELOPMENT 
AND  ORGANIC  DIVISIONS. 

1.  Definition  and  Contents  of  Theolojs^y  in  g^eneral. 

2.  The  Cliristiitii.  aim  of  Theology. 

3.  The  Evangelical  aim  of  Theolog-y. 

4.  The  Chur'olily  aim  of  Theology. 

5.  The  Relation  of  Christian  Theology  to  the  Secular  Sciences. 

6.  History  of  Christian  Theology. 

a)  In  the  Early  Church. 

7.  "  "  "        h)  During  the  Middle  Ages. 

8.  "  "  "        c)  During  the  period  of  the 

Keformation. 

9.  "  "  "        d)  During  the  last  two  cen- 

turies. 

10.  Retrospect.    The  development  of  Doctrine  in  the  present 
and  future. 

11.  Theological  Encyclopaedia  and.  Methodology.     Definition 
and  History, 

12.  Plan  and  Scope  of  the  present  Handbook. 

The  remaining  part  of  the  first  volume,  pp.  119 — 684,  is 
devoted  to  Exegetical  Theology,  an  outline  of  which  is  also 
here  given : 

I.      EXEGETICAL  THEOLOGY. 
1.    The  Doctrine  of  tlie  Old  Testament. 

a)  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament. 

By  Prof.  H.  L.  Strack  of  Berlin. 

1.  Definition  of  Old  Testament  Introduction. 

2.  History  of  the  Science  of  O.  T.  Introduction. 

3.  Introduction  to  the  Single  Books  of  O.  T. 

a)  The  Pentateuch. 

4 6)  The  Prophetical  Historical  Books. 

5 c)  The  Prophetical  Books. 

6 d)  The  Hagiographa. 

7.    General  Introduction: 

a)  The  Formation  of  the  Canon. 

8 6)  The  History   of    the    Original   Text  of 

the  O.  t. 

9 c)  Translations. 

10 ; .      d)  Apocrypha  and  Pseudepigrapha. 

11 e)  Linguistic  and  Exegetical  Aids. 

b)  AroJueology  and  History  of  the  Old  Testament. 

By  Prof.  F.  W.  Schultz  of  Breslau. 

1.  The  Geography  of  Palestine. 

2.  Israelitic  Archaeology: 

a)  Definition,  sources  and  history. 

3 b)  Domestic   Antiquities  of  the  Israelites. 

4 c)  Political   Antiquities    of    the  Israelites. 

o d)  Sacred  A  ntiquities  of  the  Israelites. 

6.     History  of  Israel: 

a)  Definition,  sources  and  history. 

7 6)  The  founding  of  the  kingdoni. 

8 c)  Its  growth  and  de<^ay. 

9 fZ)  Its  preliminary  restoratiofi. 


8  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

c)  The  Theology  of  the  Old  Testa?nent. 

By  Prof.  F.  W.  Schultz  of  Breslau. 

1.  Definition  and  History  of  Old  Testament  Theology. 

2.  The  Theology  of  the  Ante-Prophetic  Times. 

3.  The  Theology  of  the  Prophetic  Times. 

4.  The  Theology  of  the  Times  of  the  Apocryphal  Books. 

2.    The  Doctrine  of  the  New  Testament. 

a)  Introduction  to  the  Nev)  Testament. 
By  Prof.  L.  Schulze  of  Rostock. 

1.  Definition  of"  New  Testament  Introduction. 

2.  Problem  and  Method  of  X.  T.  Introduction. 

3.  History  of  the  Science  of  I^.  T.  Introduction. 

4.  Sources  for  a  history  of  the  N.  T.  Canon. 

5.  Introduction  to  the  Single  Books  of  X.  T. 

a)  The  Historical  Books. 

6 6)  The  Epistles  of  St.  Paul. 

7 c)  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

8 d)  The  Catholic  Epistles. 

9 e)  The  Revelation  of  St.  John. 

10.  General  Introduction: 

a)  The  History  of  the  Original  Text. 

11 6)  History  of  Translations  of  the  N.  T. 

12.  Linguistic  and  Exegetical-critical  helps  to   the    study  of 
the  New  Testament. 
h)  Biblical  History  of  the  New  Testament. 
By  Prof.  H.  Schulze  of  Rostock. 

1.  History  of  the  New  Testament  Times. 

2.  The  Life  of  Jesus: 

a)  Problem,  sources  and  history. 

3 b)  The  Chronological  questions  in  the  Life 

of  Jesus. 

4 c)  The  History  of  Christ's  birth  and  youth. 

5 d)  His  Entrance  upon  his  Ministry. 

6 e)  His  active  Ministry. 

7 /)  The  Passion  Week. 

8 g)  Resurrection  and   Ascension    of   Jesus. 

9.    The  Times  of  the  Apostles: 

a)  Problem,  sources  and  chronology. 

10 6)  The  Times  of  Peter. 

11 c)  The  Times  of  Paul. 

12 d)  The  Times  of  John. 

c)  Biblical  Theology  of  the  Nei.o  Testament. 
Bv  Prof.  R.  F.  Grau  of  Konigsberg. 

1.  Definition  and  History  of  the  Bi})lical  Theology  of  the  New 
Testament. 

2.  The  Doctrine  of  Jesus. 
8.  The  Theology  of  Paul. 
4.     The  Theology  of  John. 

3.    The  Doctrine  of  the  Bible  as  a  whole. 
a)  Cano7iics  or  the  Science  of  the  Biblical  Canon. 
By  Prof.  W.  Volck  of  Dorpat. 

1.  Review  of  the  History  of  the  development  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  Canon. 

2.  Contents  of  the  Canon. 


SYSTEM  OF  ZOCKLER.  9 

H.    The  inner  ('onnection  between  the  Canon  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments. 

4.  The  Perfection  and  Sufficiency  of  the  Canon  of  Scripture. 

5,  The  Inspiration  of  the  Bible. 

H.    The  Church-proof  of  the  divine  origin  of  the  Bible. 
6)  Biblical  Hemieneutics. 

By  Prof.  W.  Volck  of  Dorpat. 

1.  The  History  of  the  Theories  and  of  the  Methods  of  the  In- 
terpretation of  Scripture. 

2.  The  Subjective  Conditions  for  a  right  method  of  Interpre- 
tation. 

3.  The  Problems  to  be  solved  by  the  Interpreter. 

4.  The  Difficulties  of  interpretation  arising  from  the  differ- 
ence between  the  Old  and  Xew  Testament  Economies. 

The  first  497  pages  of  the  second  volume  treat  of  Histori- 
Theology,  and  this  is  presented  under  the  following  heads : 

II.      HISTOIIICAL   THEOLOGY. 
1.    Introduction  to  Historical  Theolog-y. 
By  Prof.  Ott(j  Zockler  of  Greifswald. 
1'.     Definition  and  signification  of  Historical  Theology.     His- 
tory of  Salvation,  Church  History,  General  History." 

2.  Divisions  of  Church  History. 

3.  History  and  Literature  of  General  Church  History. 

4.  Single  departments  of  Church  History. 

5.  Auxiliary  Sciences. 

2.    G-eneral  Church.  History. 
By  Prof.  Otto  Ztickler  of  Greifswald. 

a)  The  Antdent  ChiircJi. 

1.  General  Characteristics  of  the  Ancient  Church. 

2.  First  Period:     The  Church  of  Martyrs  (100—323). 

a)  Chronological  Survey. 
3 b)  The  Single  departments  of  Church  His- 
tory during  the  Ante-Xicene  Period. 
4.    Second  Period:   The  Times  of  the  Trinitarian  and  Christo- 
logical  Controversies  (323—692). 
a)  Chronological  Survey. 

5 6)  Review  of  Single  departments  and  their 

Literature. 

b)  The  Middle  Ages. 

1.  General  Characteristics  of  the  Church  of  the  Middle  Ages 

2.  First  Period:    From  Boniface  to  Gregory  YIl  (692—1085)! 

a)  Chronological  Survey." 
'^ b)  The  Single  departments  and  their  Lite- 
rature. 
4.    Second  Period:  From    Gregorv    VII    to     Boniface     VIII 
(1085—1303)1 
a)  Chronological  Survey. 
5 b)  Review  and  Literature. 

6.  Third  Period:    Boniface  VIII  to  the  Reformation 

(1303—1517). 
a)  Chronological  Survey. 
7 6)  Review  and  Literature. 


10  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOP.liiDIA. 

c)  Modem  Church  History. 

1.  General  Characteristics. 

2.  First  Period:    The  Time  of  the  Reformation.  (1517—1648). 

a)  Chronological  Survey. 

3 6)  Review  and  Literature. 

4.    Second  Period:  The  Time  of  Transition.  (1648—1814). 

a)  Chronological  Survey. 

5 6)  Review  and  Literature. 

6.    Third  Period:    The  Present  Times.  (1814—1883). 

3.     Archaeologry,  History  of  Christian  Doctrine,  and  Symbolics. 

<t)  ciiHstian  Arahteoloyy. 

By  Prof.  Victor  Schulze  of  Leipsic. 

1.  Introduction  to  Christian  Archaeology. 

2.  Archaeology  of  the  Organization  and  Government  of  the 
Church, 

3.  Archaeology  of  Christian  Cult  or  Worship. 

4.  Archaeology  of  Christian  Life. 

5.  Archaeology  of  Christian  Art, 

6)  History  of  Christian  Doctrines. 
By  Lie.  Paul  Zeller  of  Waiblingen  near  Stuttgart. 

1.  Definition  of  the  History  of  Doctrines. 

2.  Relations  to  other  departments.     Value,  meaning  and  di- 
visions of  the  History  of  Doctrines. 

3.  Sources,  history  and  method  of  the  History  of  Doctrines. 

4.  First  Period:  '  From  the  end  of  the  Apostolic  Times  to 

the  Council  of  Nicsea,    ( 100—325). 

5.  Second  Period:  From    Council    of    Nicjea  to  Gregory    I. 

(325—600). 

6.  Third  Period:      Ante-Scholastic    period     of     the     Middle 

Ages.    (6t)0— 1070). 

7.  Fourth  Period:  The  Scholastic-Mystic,  period  of  the  Mid- 

dle Ages.    (1070—1517). 

8.  Fifth  Period:      The  Epoch  of  the   Reformation. 

(1517—1675). 

9.  Sixth  Period:       Recent  and  most  recent    Times. 

(1675—1883). 

c)  Christimi  Symbolics. 

By  Prof,  (xezelius  von  Scheele  of  Upsala. 
Introduction. 

1.  The  Holy  Christian  Church. 

2.  The  Greek-Catholic  Church. 

3.  The  Roman-Catholic  Church. 

4.  The  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church. 

5.  The  Reformed  Church. 

6.  The  Sects  of  Protestantism. 

7.  Attempts  of  Church  Union. 

Systematic  Theology  is  discussed  under  the  three  heads 
of  i)  Apologetics,  vo\.  II.  pp.501 — 604,  2)  Dogmatics,  vol. 
II.  pp.  605 — 772,  and  3)  Ethics,  vol.  III.  pp.  i — 78,  as 
follows : 


SYSTEM   OF  ZOCKLKR.  11 

III.     SYSTEMATIC  THEOLOGY, 
1.     Apologetics. 

By  Prof.  Robert  Kuebel  of  Tuebingen. 

1.  Detinition  and  Problem  of  Apologetics. 

2.  History  of  Apologetics, 

3.  Arrangements  of  the  Matter  and  the  Method. 

4.  First  Division:      Proof  of  the  Christian  Conception  of  God. 

5.  Second  Division:  Proof  of    the    Christian    Conception    of 

Jesus  Christ. 

6.  Third  Division:     Proof  of  the  Christian  Conception  of  the 

Holy  Scriptures. 

2.    Dogmatics. 
Bv  Professors  Hermann  Cremer  and  Otto  Zockler, 
both  of  Greifswald. 
a)  Doctrine    of  Principles. 

1.  Definition  and  Problem  of  Dogmatics. 

2.  Method  of  Dogmatics. 

3.  History  and  Literature  of  Dogmatics. 

4.  The  Problem  of  the  Doctrine  of  Dogmatic  Principles. 

5.  First  Part:      The  Postulates  of  Christianity. 

6.  Second  Part:    The  Origin  of  Christian  Certainty. 

7.  Third  Part:      The  Sources  of  Christian  Knowledge. 
6)  System  of  Christian  Doctrine. 

8.  First  Part:        Doctrine  of  God.  (Theology). 

9.  Second  Part:    Doctrine  of  Man  and  of  Sin.  (Anthropology). 

10.  Third  Part:      Doctrine  of  the  Redeemer.     (Christology). 

11.  Fourth  Part:    Doctrine  of   the    Appropriation    of     Salva- 

tion. (Soteriology). 

12.  Fifth  Part:     Doctrine  of  the  Church  and  of  the    Last 

Things.   (Ecclesiology  and  Eschatology). 

3.   Ethics. 
By  Prof.  Chr.  Ernst  Luthardt  of  Leipsic. 
L    Detinition  and  Encyclopaedic  position  of  Ethics, 
2.    History  of  Ethics:  a)  In  the  Early  Church. 

3 6)  In  the  Church  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

4 c)  In  the  Church  since  the  Reformation. 

5.    System  of  Ethics:    a)  Principle  and  Divisions. 
6 6)  Christian  Ethics  in  its  Personal  Rela- 

tion. 

7 c)  Christian  Ethics  in  its  Actuality. 

8 d)  Christian   Ethics  in  its  relation  to 

Duties. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  volume  III,  (pp.  79 — 612),  is  devoted 
to  Practical  Theology,  which  is  arranged  as  follows : 

IV.      PRACTICAL   THEOLOGY. 

1.    Introduction  to  Practical  Theology. 

By  Prof.  Gerhard  v.  Zezschwitz  of  Erlangen. 

1.  Position  and  Problem  of  Practical  Theology. 

2.  Historv  of  Practical  Theology:    a)  To  the  Reformation. 
3 .' 6)  From  the  Reformation  to  the  end  of  the 

18th  Century. 


12  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

4 c)  From  the  end  of  the  18th  Century  to  the 

present  times. 
5.    Introduction  to  the  System  of  Practical  Theology: 

a)  The  Essence  and    Subject  of  the  Prac- 
tical Activities  of  the  Church. 

6 b)  The   Functions  of  Practical  Theology. 

7 c)  The  Order  of  the  various  departments  of 

Practical  Theology. 

8 d)  The  Technics    of  Practical  Theology  as 

related  to  System. 

2.    The  Single  Departments  of  Practical  Theology. 

a)  Evaiigelistics. 

By  Prof.  K.  H.  Chr.  Plath  of  Berlin. 

1.  Definition,  contents  and  division  of  the  science  of  Foreign 
Missions. 

2.  The  Extension  of  the  Church  at  the  time  of  the  Apostles. 

3.  The  Mission-Method  of  the  Apostles. 

4.  The  Extension  of  the  Church  from  the  death  of  the  Apostles 
to  the  migrations  of  the  Nations. 

5.  The  Mission-method  of  Post- Apostolic  Times. 

6.  The  Missions  of  the  period  of  the  migrations  of  Nations. 

7.  The  Mission-Method  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

8.  Missions  after  the  rise  of  Islam. 

9.  Mission-Methods  of  the  latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

10.  The  Missions  of  the  more  recent  times. 

11.  The  Evangelistics  of  the  Present. 

h)  Cateehetics. 

By  Prof.  Gerhard  v.  Zezschwitz  of  Erlangen. 

1.  Definition,  name  and  problem  of  Cateehetics  in  its  wider 
sense. 

2.  Definition  and  division   of  the  Art  of  Cateehetics  in  its 
narrower  sense. 

3.  The  History  of  Cateehetics. 

4.  The  Doctrine  of  Cateehetics  in  the  Christian  Church. 

a)  The  positive  foundation. 

5.  Continuation:    6)  The  teleological  aim. 

6.  Conclusion:    Dialectic-didactic  mediation. 

c)  Homiletics. 

By  Prof.  Gerhard  v.  Zezschwitz  of  Erlangen. 

1.  Name,  definition  and  problem  of  Homiletics. 

2,  The  History  of  the  Sermon. 

a)  During  the  Early  Church. 

3 h)  During  the  Middle  Ages. 

4 c)  During  the  period  of  the  Reformation. 

5 d)  During  the  more  recent  times. 

6.  The  Theory  of  Homiletics:    a)  The  Sermon  and  the  Word 

of  God. 

7.  Conclusion:        h)  The  Preacher  and  the  Congregation. 

d)  Liturgies. 

By  Prof.  Theodosius  Harnack  of  Dorpat. 

1.  Definition  and  Problem  of  Liturgies. 

2.  History  and  Literature  of  Liturgies. 

3.  The  Foundation  of  Worship  or  Cult. 


SYSTEM  OF  ZOCKLETl.  13 

4.  The  Principal  Acts  of  Divine  Worship: 

a)  The  Sacramental  Acts. 

5.  Conclusion:    6)  The  Sacrificial  Acts. 

6.  The  Liturgy  of  Divine  Worship  in  its  historical  develop- 
ment. 

e)  Poimenics  or  Pastoralics. 

By  Prof.  Theodosius  Harnack  of  Dorpat. 

1.  Definition  and  Problem  of  the  Doctrine  of  Pastoralics. 

2.  The  History  of  the  Care  of  Souls. 

3.  The  Theory  of  the  Care  of  Souls: 

a)  Preliminary  Conditions. 

4.  Continuation:    b)  In  relation  to  the  whole   Congregation. 

5.  Conclusion:        c)  In  relation  to  the  Individual. 

/)  JDiaconias',    or    T?ie    Theory    and    History     of     Inner 
Mission.    (ffo?ne  Mission.) 

By  Pastor  Th.  Schaefer  of  xlltona. 
h    Principles:         a)  Orientation. 

2 b)  Name,  definition  and  encyclopaedic  posi- 
tion of  Diaconics. 

3 a)  The  relation  of  the  Diaconate  and  Inner 

Mission  to  the  Church. 

4.  History  of  Diaconics  and  Inner  Mission. 

5.  Practical:  a)  Necessary  Conditions. 

6.  Continuation:  b)  Methods  of  carrying  on  the  work. 

7.  The  Work  of  the  Diaconate  and  Inner  Mission. 

g)  Gybernetics  or  T7ie  History  and  Theory  of  Church  Polity. 
By  Prof.  Theodosius  Harnack  of  Dorpat. 

1.  The  Church  and  Churchdom. 

2.  Brief  History  of  the  sources  of  Church  Law. 

3.  History  of  Church  Politv:    a)  In  the  Apostolic  Times. 
4 6)  In  the  Old  Catholic  Times. 

5 c)  In  the  Canonical-Catholic  times. 

6 c?)  In  the  Evangelical-Catholic  times. 

7.  The  Theory  of  Church  Polity: 

a)  The  Administration  of  the  Church. 

8.  Conclusion:    b)  The  Constitution  of  the  Church. 

SECTION  V. 

THE  CHOICE  OF  A    PROFESSION.* 

There  is  no  occupation  of  man,  in  the  choice  of  which, 
there  is  a  full  parallel  to  that  of  the  Gospel  Ministry.  It  is 
desirable  in  all  occupations,  and  the  more  desirable  as  occupa- 
tions rise  in  dignity  and  importance,  that  men  should  have  an 
internal  vocation  to  them. 

*  In  this  and  the  following  sections  of  the  Introduction,  the  writer  is  greatly 
indebted  to  the  unpublished  lectures  of  Dr.  Charles  P.  Krauth,  late  Norton  Professor 
of  Theology  in  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Theological  Seminary  in  Philadelphia, 
who  for  many  years  lectured  on  Theological  Encycloixedia  to  his  students. 
Dr.  Krauth  followed  Hagenbach  as  a  general  guide,  but  his  lectures  were  far  superior 
in  style  and  in  spirit. 


14  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

The  holy  ministry,  because  the  highest  of  all  human  occu- 
pations, demands  above  all  the  internal  vocation.  What  is  a 
blunder  as  regards  any  other  occupation,  is,  as  regards  the 
ministry,  a  crime — a  crime  against  the  man's  own  soul,  the 
souls  of  men,  and  the  glory  of  God. 

The  theological  student  should  have  a  clear  and  satisfactory 
idea  of  the  nature  of  the  Gospel  ministry.  He  ought  to  be  able  to 
give  a  decisive  answer  to  the  question:  What  urges  you  to  the  study 
of  Theology? 

Herder,  in  his  twenty-fifth  letter  of  his  Brief  e  uebei'  das  Studi- 
um  der  Theologie,  says:  "Perhaps  no  study  has  in  all  ages  had  so 
few  to  serve  it  with  entire  faithfulness,  as  theology;  precisely, 
however,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  an  almost  superhuman,  divine— 
the  most  difficult  study." 

SECTION   VI. 

THE  MOTIVES  FOR    ENTERING  THE  MINISTRY. 

The  motives  for  seeking  the  ministry  vary  very  much. 

1.  Some  enter  the  ministry  who  do  not  seek  it.  They 
enter  it  with  an  aversion  sometimes  almost  avowed  or  yet 
more  frequently  suppressed.  The  former  case  is  rare  in  our 
country,  but  is  not  rare  where  there  is  an  Established  Church, 
where  men  often  enter  the  ministry  to  secure  a  particular 
revenue,  of  which  the  right  of  patronage  lies  in  a  particular 
family  or  can  be  controlled  by  it. 

2.  Some  enter  the  ministry  because  the  vow  or  earnest 
wish  of  a  father  or  mother  is  upon  them,  a  vow  made  or  a 
wish  expressed  perhaps  in  a  dying  hour. 

3.  Some,  because  of  vows  made  in  the  hour  of  peril,  or 
in  moments  of  intense  emotion,  as  in  Luther's  case. 

4.  Some  drift  into  the  ministry  by  the  mere  force  of  cir- 
cumstances, with  hardly  a  distinct  effort  of  their  own  will  in 
connection  with  it. 

5.  Some  commit  themselves  to  preparation  for  the  mini- 
stry and  go  on  because  ashamed  to  draw  back.  Men  are  often 
improperly  urged  to  commit  themselves  in  advance  of  earnest 
self-examination,  fervent  prayer,  and  calm  consideration  of  the 
indications  of  Providence  and  of  the  judgment  of  those  whom 
it  is  their  duty  to  consult. 

6.  Some  are  drawn  to  the  ministry  by  the  conception 
they  form  in  their  childhood,  of  the  glory  and  majesty  of  the 


MOTIVES  FOR  ENTERING  THE  MINISTRY.  lo 

office.  If  such  impressions  were  intelligently  nursed  through 
the  riper  years,  the  Church  would  less  frequently  be  compelled 
to  mourn  over  a  want  of  ministers. 

7.  Some  are  attracted  to  the  ministry  by  the  intellectual 
interest  which  theological  study  inspires  in  their  minds. 

8.  Some  are  attracted  to  the  ministry  by  the  spirit  of 
Christian  love.  Their  heart  is  their  guiding  star,  and  happy 
the  man,  who,  having  the  qualities  needed   for  the  ministry,  is 

thus  drawn  to  it. 

9.  Some  are  led  by  their  great  activity  of  character  ;  they 
desire  the  largest  field  of  holy  effort ;  they  have  something  of 
the  spirit  of  the  world-subduing  apostles,  and  of  the  true  mis- 
sionaries of  the  Church,  in  her  various  eras. 

10.  The  full  internal  vocation  of  the  most  perfect  kind 
unites  and  harmonizes  all  these  legitimate  tendencies.  It  in- 
volves i)  tender  love  to  Christ  and  the  souls  he  has  redeemed  ; 
2)  deep  interest  in  Divine  truth,  both  as  involving  the  intellect 
and  the  affections ;  and  3)  the  energy  which  is  prepared  to 
consummate,  by  hearty   toil  and  meek    endeavor,  the  will  of 

God.    {Manuscript  Lectures  of  Dr.  KrautJi). 

It  will  be  sufficient  in  the  beginning  that  a  disposition  and  de- 
sire for  both  religion  and  learning  should  exist.  Piety  without 
learning  is  as  incapable  of  forming  a  theologian,  as  is  learning 
without  piety.  Not  all  students  of  theology  are  Timothies,  of 
whom  it  may  be  said  that  they  have  "known  the  sacred  writings 
from  a  babe"  (2  Tim.  3:  15).  A  real  study  of  theology  serves  natur- 
ally to  increase  the  power  of  religious  motives.  Great  importance 
should  be  attached  to  natural  endow  ments.  But  how  many  sons 
of  clergymen  adopt  the  paternal  calling  in  obedience  to  family  cus- 
tom, without  being  inwardly  moved  thereto  either  by  natural  en- 
dowments or  by  religious  motives  I 

"If  ever  the  service  of  the  ministry  was  a  mere  routine,  now  it 
is  no  longer  such.  There  is  no  research  of  scholarship,  no  philo- 
logical skill,  no  power  of  historical  investigation,  no  mastery  in 
Philosophy,  no  largeness  of  imagination,  no  grace  of  life  and  cha- 
racter, no  practical  self-denial,  no  gift  of  eloquence  to  man  by  the 
wTitten  or  the  spoken  word,  no  energy  of  character,  no  practical 

sagacity, no  living  faith,  and  no  large  charity,  which  may  not, 

through  the  length  and  breadth  of  our  land,  find  the  fullest  em- 
plcjyment,  and  which  are  not  needed  by  the  Christian  Church.  It 
wants  its  men  of  tire,  its  men  of  piety,  its  men  of  large  discourse, 
its  laborers  in  our  streets  and  lanes,  its  minds  of  calm  philosophy, 
its  heroes  and  its  saints.  It  needs  its  trained  bands— and  needs 
them  in  this  our  own  country  especially— to  meet  both  Pope  and 

pagan."* 

*  See  Dr.  Henry  B.  Smith's  lecture  on  "Has  Theology  a  valid  claim  to  the  devo- 
tion of  our  young  men?"  in  his  IntnHhi^Uon  to  Christian  Theology,  pp.  1—24. 


16  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


SECTION   VII. 


THE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  MINISTERIAL  OFFICE.'*' 

The  office  of  the  ministry  involves  the  supremest  exercise 
of  man's  supremest  faculties  transfigured  by  the  power  of  the 
Holy  Ghost. 

I.  The  minister  should  be  deep  in  the  knowledge  of  that 
Law  which  underlies  all  law,  and  thus  is  to  be  a  deeper  lawyer 
than  the  lawyer  himself.  2.  He  should  be  a  true  physician, 
thoroughly  understanding  men,  able  to  apply  the  divine  reme- 
dies for  the  deepest  diseases  of  the  race.  3.  He  should  be  a 
true  teacher  of  that  knowledge  which  is  above  all  human  know- 
ledge. 4.  His  work  is  the  reproduction  of  the  living  Christ  in 
the  heart.  5.  The  functions  of  his  office  embrace  all  ages  and 
conditions. 

Into  such  a  profession,  so  noble,  so  difficult,  so  responsible, 
no  man  should  enter  unadvisedly.  He  who  contemplates  en- 
tering it  should  (a)  thoroughly  examine  himself  as  to  the 
reality  of  the  internal  vocation  he  supposes  himself  to  have. 
(^)  He  should  carefully  lay  the  evidence  on  which  he  is  dis- 
posed to  rely,  before  judicious  advisers,  (c)  Above  all,  with 
fervent  prayer,  he  should  study  those  parts  of  the  oracles  of 
God  which  reveal  the  divine  requirements  for  the  ministry  of 
the  Word,  (d)  He  should  implore  the  light  and  guidance  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  patiently,  meekly  waiting  till,  in  the  providence 
of  God,  the  external  vocation  which  God  himself  gives  through 
His  Church  shall  be  set  as  the  seal  of  His  inward  calling. 

The  inward  vocation  is  not  a  revelation.  Men  are  not 
inspired  with  it,  even  when  there  is  good  evidence  that  they 
have  it.  As  a  class,  the  men  who  insist  most  strongly  upon 
their  possessing  it  as  an  infallible  ground  on  which  they  not 
only  seek  the  ministry,  but  claim  that  others  are  bound  to  ad- 
mit them  to  it,  show  least  of  the  evidence  on  which  the  Church 
may  legitimately  rest  her  conviction  that  it  is  her  duty  to  give 
them  her  call. 

The  internal  vocation  is  an  argument  only  to  the  man 
himself.     If  he  submits  his   impression  that  he  has  it,  to  the 


*  Condensed  from  the  unpublished  lectures  of  Dr.  Krauth. 


RELIGION   AND   ITS   NATURE.  17 

Church,  then  he  is  bound  by  the  judgment  of  the  Church  in 
his  case.  The  internal  vocation,  which  a  man  imagines  he  has, 
is  in  itself  as  distinct  from  a  call  to  the  ministry,  as  the  persua- 
sion which  a  man  has  that  he  is  fit  to  be  and  ought  to  be  Pre- 
sident of  the  United  States,  is  distinct  from  an  election  to  that 
office.  No  man  ought  to  seek  an  office  without  a  conviction 
of  his  general  fitness  for  it,  or  the  existence  of  a  conviction  on 
the  part  of  his  friends  to  which  he  may  modestly  defer.  Noth- 
ing perhaps  has  tended  more  to  introduce  unsuitable  men  into 
the  ministry  than  the  impression  that  it  is  necessarily  some- 
thing divine  in  a  man's  persuasion  that  he  has  been  called.  In 
nothing  do  men  more  frequently  mistake  their  vocation  than 
in  the  ministry.  The  presumption  is  in  fact  not  something 
which  is  to  be  the  touchstone  to  other  things,  but  is  a  some- 
thing which  in  itself  is  to  be  carefully  tested.  A  man  does  not 
prove  that  he  is  fit  for  the  ministry  by  insisting  that  he  has 
been  called ;  but  helps  to  prove  that  he  has  been  called, 
by  showing  that  he  is  fit.  A  vocation  to  the  ministry  now  is 
not  miraculously  given  by  God,  but  is  imparted  by  Him 
through   the  Church. 

SECTION  VIII. 

WHAT  THE  MINISTRY  TEACHES, — RELIGION  AND 
ITS  NATURE.* 

The  minister  teaches  Religion,  if  not  exclusively,  yet  at 
least  primarily  and  pre-eminently.  The  minister  is  a  teacher 
and  the  thing  which  he  is  to  teach,  is  Rehgion. 

Religion  has  been  regarded  by  recent  writers  as  having 
manifested  itself  in  the  three  generic  forms  /)  of  Law,  2)  of 
Art,  and  j)  of  Doctrine. 

i)  LaziJ  defines  duty  without  inspiring  the  love  which  im- 
pels man  to  duty.  2)  Ar^  may  inspire  love,  but  the  love  it 
inspires  is  too  vague  to  direct  the  mind  definitely  toward  the 
supreme  object  of  love  and  yet  more  to  unite  the  heart  with 
it.  3)  Doctrine  supplies  the  truth,  which  moulds  the  mind, 
kindles  the  heart  and  directs  the  powers. 

*  See  the  unpublished  lectvu-es  of  Dr.  Krauth. 


18  THEQLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Doctrine  embraces  Law  and  Art,  relieves  them  of  their  one- 
sidedness,  supplies  what  they  lack  and  directs  them  to  their 
highest  aims.  Legislators  and  artists  are  also  teachers  of  man- 
kind in  a  certain  sense,  but  what  is  beyond  the  ability  of  both 
law  and  art  is  accomplished  by  the  living  word  of  doctrine 
alone. 

SECTION   IX. 

HISTORICAL  FORMS  OF  RELIGION. 

The  preceding  section  may  be  historically  illustrated  by 
the  Jewish,  Heathen,  and  Christian  religions. 

Judaism  was  pre  -  eminently  the  religion  of  law;  Classic 
Heathenism  the  religion  of  art ;  Christianity  has  unfolded  it- 
self in  a  faith,  or  system  of  doctrine.  Christ  is  a  teacher,  the 
Apostles  were  teachers,  the  ministry  is  a  teaching  office. 

We  might  express  the  parallels  and  antitheses  of  these  three 
different  religious  systems,  in  their  relation  of  these  three  elements 
of  law,  art  and  doctrine  thus: 

Judaism  and  Heathenism  compared  stand  thus  related,— Juda- 
ism has  more  law,  more  doctrine.  Heathenism  more  art. 

Christianity  and  Judaism  compared  stand  thus,— equal  in  law, 
Christianity  has  more  art  and  more  doctrine. 

Compai-ed  with  Heathenism,  Christianity  has  more  law,  more 
doctrine,  equal  art. 


SECTION  X. 

PROTESTANTISM  AND  ROMANISM. 

The  gauge  of  doctrine  is  the  gauge  of  Christianity.  Doc- 
trine is  more  prominent  in  Protestantism  than  in  Romanism, 
because  Protestantism  is  more  Christian  than  Romanism. 

Comparing  Protestantism  and  Romanism,  Protestantism  has 
less  positive  law,  more  moral  law,  more  doctrine;  Eomanism  has 
more  art. 

Comparing-  Luthera7iism  and  Calvinism,  Lutheranism  has  less 
positive  law,  equal  in  moral  law,  more  art,  more  doctrine. 

The  Lutheran  Reformation  in  Germany  bore  predominantly 
the  character  of  a  re-action  against  the  .)  udaism  that  had  intruded 
into  the  Church,  while  the  Reformation  in  Switzerland  {the  Reform- 
ed) was  chiefly  a  re-action  against  paganism. 

As  pure  Christianity  conditions  its  elements  of  lato  and  art,  by 
its  highest  element  which  is  doctrine,  the  ministry  in  its  true  func- 
tion in  the  Protestant  Church  aims  primarily  at  teaching  men. 


RELIGION  AS  KNOWLEDGE,  ACTIVITY,  AND  EMOTION.      19 

SECTION   XI. 
CHARACTER  OF  MINISTERS  AS  RELIGIOUS  TEACHERS. 

Although  the  teachers  ofrehgion  as  such  belong  pre-emin- 
ently to  the  order  of  teachers,  they  are  yet  distinct  from  the 
teachers  of  science,  inasmuch  as  religion  is  not  simple  know- 
ledge or  science  ;  and  hence  can  not  be  taught  and  learned  simp- 
ly and  unconditionally  in  itself  as  knowledge. 

The  clergyman  should  be  both  preacher  and  teacher  of  religion. 
As  a  teacher  of  adults  he  holds  a  position  midway  between  the 
teacher  of  youth  and  the  academical  professor.  In  his  catechetical 
and  his  pastoral  duties,  the  clergyman  divides  the  function  of  train- 
ing with  the  teacher  of  youth. 

SECTION  XII. 

RELIGION  AS  KNOWLEDGE,  ACTIVITY,  AND  EMOTION. 

The  religion  which  the  minister  is  to  teach  is  i)  know- 
ledge^ but  not  mere  knowledge ;  2)  activity,  but  not  mere  acti- 
vity; 3)  emotion,  but  not  mere  emotion. 

All  definitions  of  religion  which  present  one  of  these  three 
to  the  exclusion  of  both  the  others,  or  two  of  these  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  third,  are  defective,  if  not  absolutely  false.  Mere 
knowledge  is  dead  orthodoxism ;  mere  activity  is  legalism ;  mere 
emotion  is  fanaticism ;  but  heavenly  knowledge,  applied  by 
the  Holy  Ghost  to  the  renewal  of  the  affections  and  the  pro- 
ducing of  an  earnest  spirit,  whose  fruits  are  deeds  of  love,  is 
the  basis,  and  in  its  connection,  the  completion  of  true  relig- 
ion. 

1.    Not  mere  Knowledge. 

No  process  of  mental  cultivation  can  make  a  man  a  Christian. 
Kationalism  is  the  result  of  spurious  intellectualism  in  one  direction, 
as  dead  orthodoxism  is  in  another.  Were  knowledge  and  religion 
identical,  our  own  age  would  be  more  pious  than  former  ages,  the 
philosopher  would  be  more  saintlike  than  the  humble  Christian 
mother,  men  than  women,  adults  than  children.  Were  the  intellect 
sufficient  to  make  us  Christians,  the  Church  would  not  be  an  as- 
sembly of  believers,— ii  would  not  be  a  Church  but  a  school  or  uni- 
versity. Sectarianism  and  controversial  tendencies  have  their  origin 
chiefly  in  a  false  assertion  of  the  claims  of  knowledge,  and  in  a 
lack  of  purity  and  simplicity  of  faith.  The  experience  of  Christians 
also  proves  that  religion  is  not  simply  Knowledge.  Were  religion 
purely  intellectual,  it  would  be  strongest  when  the  intellect  is  in  its 
prime,  and  weak  in  old  age,  and  upon  the  sick  and  dying-bed,  while 
the  truth  is,  that  under  precisely  such  circumstances,  religion  often 
appears  in  its  highest  perfection. 


20  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

2.  Not  mere  activity. 

Christianity  is  in  certain  aspects  a  thing  of  doing,  yet  it  is  not 
a  mere  doing.  It  is  the  highest  morality,  the  purest  embodiment  of 
consecration  to  duty,  it  is  the  supremest  activity  of  men;  but  not 
these  alone.  True  it  is  that  religion  and  morality  in  the  proper 
sense  of  both  words,  are  inseparable,  for  there  can  be  no  true  reli- 
gion which  is  immoral,  and  no  true  morality  which  is  not  religious; 
but  Christianity  is  not  a  thing  of  dead  mechanical  working.  Mora- 
lity without  religion  knows  nothing  of  sin  as  such,  but  recognizes 
only  moral  deficiency ;  it  therefore  substitutes  self-improvement  for 
repentance.  ^In  and  repentance  are  religious-ethical  ideas.  Morality 
is  determined  by  the  external  condition  of  life;  it  needs  no  worship, 
and  is  based  on  the  ideas  of  independence  and  self-determination. 
No  man  can  be  always  working,  yet  every  man  should  be  always  a 
Christian.  Not  those  alone  who  work,  but  often  most  of  all  those 
whose  sore  trial  it  is  that  they  cannot  work,  glorify  God.  Some- 
times the  religious  element  predominates,  sometimes  the  moral. 
The  most  perfect  state,  however,  is  that  in  which  religion  trans- 
figures morality,  and  in  which  morality  attests  the  religious  cha- 
racter. 

3.  Not  mere  emotion. 

Christianity  involves  in  a  high  degree  the  emotional.  There 
may  be  deep  religion  with  little  knowledge  and  little  power  of  ex- 
ternal activity,  but  there  can  be  no  deep  religion  without  deep 
emotion.  We  must  be  careful  not  to  mistake  sentimentality  for 
piety,  justification  by  sensation  for  justification  by  faith,  tempera- 
ment for  holiness.  The  spiritual  state  of  some  vibrates  upon  the 
food  they  have  taken;  with  some  it  fluctuates  with  the  weather; 
some  mistake  their  natural  good  humor  for  holy  bliss;  while  others 
try  to  persuade  themselves  that  mere  poetic  feeling  is  religious 
emotion.  The  love  of  Sacred  Art,  Church  Music,  gorgeous  vestments, 
fine  paintings  of  sacred  themes,  are  mistaken  by  many  for  religious 
emotion. 

SECTION  XIII. 

THE   THREE-FOLD    TASK   OF  THE   MINISTER. 

The  task  of  the  religious  instructor  is  consequently  three- 
fold :  i)  to  enlighten  the  understanding  with  sound  knowledge, 
so  that  men  may  have  clear  views  of  truth ;  2)  to  awaken  emo- 
tion through  that  truth  and  by  truth  to  strengthen  and  purify 
emotion ;  3)  to  direct  the  will  and  the  conscience,  by  the  power 
of  that  emotion,  to  activity  in  making  man  holy,  and  in  impell- 
ing him  to  do  good  to  others.  He  addresses  his  work  to  the 
head,  the  heart,  and  the  hand,  and  the  union  of  the  functions 
of  these  three  parts  makes  the  Christian  complete.  The  vital 
force,  immanent  in  all  these  elements,  is  faith.  Faith  makes 
knowing,  saving  knowledge  ;  it  makes  activity  holiness  ;  makes 
emotion  experience. 


THE  MINISTER  AS  RELATED  TO  THE  CHURCH.  21 

The  religious  teacher  must,  at  the  outset,  fix  his  attention  upon 
the  entire  man.  He  is  to  edify,  to  arouse,  to  teach,  to  guide,  to  ad- 
monish, to  reprove. 

SECTION  XIV. 

THE  MINISTER  AS  RELATED  TO  THE  CHURCH. 

But  as  religion  is  not  merely  a  matter  of  the  individual  in 
his  isolation,  the  minister  is  to  consider  both  himself  and  his 
hearers  with  regard  to  the  bonds  of  fellowship,  which  are 
meant  to  unite  men  in  the  faith.  He  is  not  a  private  tutor, 
but  a  teacher  in  the  Church  and  for  the  Church.  His  aim  is 
to  make  men  living  members  of  the  body  of  Christ.  He  con- 
templates man  as  either  in  the  Church,  or  as  one  to  be  brought 
into  it.  The  Christian  minister  himself  belongs  to  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  He  is  a  part  of  the  body  of  those  who  confess 
Christ,  and  by  this  fact  all  his  duties  are  conditioned.  He 
must  be  in  the  stream  of  the  Church's  hfe. 

SECTION  XV. 

THE  CHURCH  AND  THEOLOGY. 

The  minister  is  therefore,  to  be  prepared  with  all  the 
knowledge  which  adapts  him  to  the  wants  of  the  Church.  He 
ought  to  know  all  that  the  Church  is,  in  her  proper  life,  all 
that  she  has  been,  in  order  that  he  may  know  all  that  she 
needs,  to  become  what  God  designs  her  to  be.  He  must  be 
enriched  by  the  lessons  of  the  Church's  past,  for  his  labor  in 
preparing  the  way  for  the  Church  of  the  future.  He  must  know 
the  Church  as  she  rests  on  her  foundation,  the  Scripture,  or 
rather,  as  she  rests  on  Him  of  whom  all  Scripture  is  witness. 
The  foundation  of  the  Church  is  that  of  the  Apostles  and  the 
Prophets.  This  is  the  foundation  they  /aid  Siud  the  foundation 
which  they  laid  is  Jesus  Christ,  therefore,  other  foundation  can 
no  man  lay  than  that  which  is  laid,  which  is  Jesus  Christ.  The 
minister  must  know  the  development  of  the  Church  in  faith  and 
creed.  He  must  know  her  history  and  practical  needs — the 
need  of  the  altar,  the  need  of  the  pulpit,  the  need  of  the  pastor 
and  of  the  people.  The  preliminary  to  this  knowledge  is  theo- 
logical study. 


THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA.  22 

SECTION  XVI. 

THEOLOGICAL  STUDY. 

The  more  perfect  a  religion  is,  the  more  does  it  tend  to  a 
scientific  system.  System  is  characteristic  of  Christianity  in  a 
higher  degree  than  of  Judaism,  because  it  involves  a  more 
consummate  measure  of  revelation  ;  and  Lutheranism  over  and 
against  other  forms  of  Christianity,  Romish  or  Reformed, 
vindicates  its  internal  perfection  by  the  acknowledged  beauty, 
comprehensiveness,  and  internal  harmony  of  its  system,  in 
which  it  surpasses  all  others.  So  much  is  this  the  case  that  the 
Lutheran  Church  is  confessed,  even  by  those  who  are  not  of 
her,  to  be  the  Church  of  great  theologies  and  of  great  theolo- 
gians. Karl  Hase,  who  is  completely  latitudinarian,  compares 
the  theological  system  of  our  Church  to  a  glorious  Gothic  ed- 
ifice, massive  in  architecture,  and  finished  in  beauty,  even  to 
the  last  of  its  marvelous  adornings.  We  can  conceive  of  men 
of  intellect  studying  this  system  without  receiving  it  in  every 
part ;  but  we  conceive  it  impossible  for  a  man  of  high  intellect 
to  master  the  system  of  our  Church  without  admiring  it. 

SECTION  XVII. 

THE  THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOL. — THEOLOGIANS 
AND  PASTORS. 

The  wider  the  compass  and  the  deeper  the  contents  of 
theological  science,  the  more  necessary  is  the  division  of  labor 
in  its  sphere.  One  class  of  workers  looks  to  the  development  of 
the  science  in  itself,  another  class  uses  it  as  the  means  for 
the  practical  ends  of  the  ministry.  The  first  class  are  the 
workers  in  the  theological  school,  theologians  in  the  most  re- 
stricted sense  of  the  word — teachers  of  those  who  are  to  become 
teachers  of  others.  The  other  class  consists  of  the  direct  teach- 
ers of  the  people,  the  pastors  of  the  congregations.  To  the 
pastors  various  names  have  been  given  according  to  local  and 
confessional  usage,  or  with  reference  to  their  occupation  or 
position  in  the  Church.  They  have  been  called  elders,  presby- 
ters or  priests,  bishops,  clergymen,  ministers,  rectors,  curates, 
cures,  preachers,  fathers,  and  confessors. 


THE  UNIVERSITY  AND  COLLEGE.  23 

The  Church  is  older  than  the  theological  school.  The  school 
grew  out  of  the  Church.  Pastors  are  older  than  Doctors  of  Theo- 
logy. We  do  not  use  the  title  doctor  of  theology,  as  implying  that 
the  holder  of  it  has  received  a  diploma,  but  in  its  true  meaning  as 
involving  sciimtitic  acquirements.  It  is  a  happy  thing  when  true 
men  of  God  can  work  in  both  spheres.  Such  were  most  of  the  Re- 
formers, mightv  in  the  pulpit  and  in  the  professor's  chair.  Luther 
was  probably  the  best  pastor,  as  he  was  the  greatest  man,  of  his 
age.  And  almost  without  exception  the  great  divines  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  were  preachers  as  well  as  teachers.  In  our  own 
day  some  of  the  greatest  German  theologians  have  combined  both 
otBces,  as  Stier,  Nitzsch,  Tholuck,  Julius  Mueller,  Rothe,  and 
Schleiermacher.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Theologians  of  our  own 
country. 

SECTION  XVIII. 

RELATION  OF  THE  THEOLOGIAN  TO  THE  SCHOOL  AND 
THE  CHURCH. 

The  foundation  of  a  good  theological  education,  as  of  all 
other  specific  educations  in  the  professions,  is  laid  in  a  good 
general  education. 

The  Church  has  a  right  to  demand  from  all  candidates  for  the 
ministry  evidence  of  theological  acquirement  and  of  true  Christian 
faith  and  piety,  and  during  the  first  centuries  herself  framed  all  her 
teachers  and  pastors.  The  schools  at  Alexandria,  Antioch,  Ca^sarea, 
Edessa,  and  Xisibis  bsar  witness  to  the  fact. 

Since  the  rise  of  the  University  System  of  education,  with  its 
various  faculties,  especially  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  the  Pro- 
testant student  belongs  to  the  theological  school  during  the  period 
of  his  academical  studies  and  derives  his  culture  from  that  source 
rather  than  immediately  from  the  Church.  In  this  country.  Theo- 
logical Seminaries  are  as  a  rule  under  the  direct  control  of  the 
Church. 

SECTION  XIX. 

THE    UNIVERSITY    AND  COLLEGE. 

The  ordinary  means  of  obtaining  this  general  education 
is  the  College  or  the  University. 

The  question, — whether  the  German  lecture  system,  so  much 
in  vogue  in  many  of  our  Theological  Seminaries,  is  the  best 
method  of  instruction  or  not, — has  been  much  discussed.  While 
the  lecture  should  not  be  displaced  altogether  by  any  other 
method,  it  is  certainly  beneficial  to  combine  with  it  other  me- 
thods of  instruction.  Formal  dictation  can  only  become  neces- 
sary through  the  force  of  circumstances,  and  with  reference  to  a 
a  few  leading  principles,  for  want  of  a  printed  guide.  A  text- 
book  in  the  hands  of  the  students,  accompanied    by  an   oral 


24  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

exposition  of  the  professor  is  the  favorite  method  of  many. 
Occasional  and  strict  semi-annual  examinations,  following  a 
completed  course,  are  absolutely  necessary  for  true  progress  in 
theological  knowledge. 

The  more  you  bring  to  the  professional  school,  the  more  you 
carry  from  it.  Which  is  the  better  method,  private  or  public  educa- 
tion ?  The  favored  few  may  have  the  power  of  choosing,  but  the 
mass  of  learners  must  be  publicly  educated.  Many  men  must  be 
driven  to  knowledge,  spurred  and  lashed  out  of  ignorance;  most  men 
need  to  be  encouraged  and  drawn  on  to  it.  The  men  who  are  edu- 
cated by  force,  or  by  persuasion,  really  create  the  general  atmos- 
phere of  literature  and  learning,  without  which  the  self-made  men 
so  called,  could  never  arise.  Self-made  men  of  the  highest  order  are 
exceptional,  and  most  even  of  these,  have  not  become  so  thoroughly 
well-made,  as  to  leave  nothing  to  desire.  No  one  is  more  anxious  to 
provide  a  thorough  education  for  others,  than  the  man  of  vigorous 
mind,  who  has  been  denied  the  benefit  of  liberal  training. 

Theremin  demands  a  more  conversational  method  of  instruc- 
tion. A  lecture,  properly  so-called,  should  be  extempore  and  fresh, 
carrying  the  hearers  along  with  the  current  of  thought;  not  declama- 
tory or  pathetic,  but  strictly  methodical,  dignified,  and  earnest, 
accomplishing  its  purpose  by  clearness  and  depth  of  thought  in- 
stead of  foreign  ornamentation.  As  it  is  not  designed  for  immediate 
effect,  but  to  excite  thought  and  mental  activity  on  the  part  of 
students  who  think  and  act  for  themselves,  it  is  of  great  importance 
that  these  latter  should  seek  to  retain  the  substance  of  the  lecture 
by  sketching  it  on  paper,  and  afterwards  reproducing  it  in  its  main 
outlines.  Such  a  note-book  prepared  by  the  student,  accompanied 
with  marginal  notes  of  inquiry  and  illustration,  will  be  of 
great  and  permanent  value.  Little  is  gained  by  the  mere  attendance 
on  lectures  and  listening  to  them,  without  subsequent  writing. 
Especially  stimulating,  however,  are  disputations  under  the 
guidance  of  the  professor,  and  independent  societies  for  practice 
among  the  students. 

SECTION  XX. 

HOW  TO  USE  THE  ADVANTAGES  OF  EDUCATION. 

The  first  requisite  to  a  real  use  of  the  advantages  of  educa- 
tion is  a  hearty  responsive  effort  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  There 
must  be  careful  reading  and  listening,  thorough  fixing  in  the 
memory,  and  complete  digestion  of  what  has  been  read  and 
heard.  But  more  than  this,  the  student  should  cultivate  him- 
self by  judicious  reading  outside  of  the  course  of  study.  There 
should  be  preparation,  appropriation,  repetition  and  elaborat- 
ion. 

The  study  of  encyclopaedia  and  methodology  helps  to  produce 
system  into  theological  study.  Preparation  and  repetition  constitute 
the  bonds  of  union  between  "private  industry  and  the  objects  sought 
in  the  hearing  of  the  lecture.  Discussion  with  fellow-students  will 
provide  the  intellectual   gymnastics    by  which  the  faculties  are 


HOW  TO  USE  THE  ADVANTAGES  OF  EDUCATION.  25 

strengthened  and  made  trustworthy.    Care  however  must  be  taken 
as  to  the  spirit  in  which  religious  matters  are  discussed. 

READING.* 

There  are  certain  rules  which  ought  to  be  observed  by  the  stu- 
dent, and  which  together  constitute  the  Proper  Method  of  Reading. 
These  may  be  reduced  to  three  classes,  as  they  regard  1)  the  quantity 
2)  the  quality  of  what  is  to  be  read,  or  3)  the  mode  of  reading  what 
is  to  be  read. 

1)  As  concerns  the  quantity,  there  is  a  single  rule, — Read 
much,  but  not  many  works  {multimi  non  multa).  Hobbes  said  "that 
if  he  had  read  as  much  as  other  men,  he  would  have  known  as  little." 
The  man  who  has  one  line  perfectly  grasped  in  hie  memory  and  un- 
derstanding, may  bring  it  to  bear  a  thousand  times  in  his  life-time, 
while  a  man  that  has  a  confused  knowledge  of  hundreds  of  books 
may  never  be  able  to  bring  a  solitary  line  of  them  into  practical  use. 

2)  As  concerns  the  quality  of  what  is  to  be  read,  there  may 
be  given  five  rules. 

a)  Select  the  works  of  principal  importance,  estimated  by  rela- 
tion to  the  several  sciences  themselves,  or  to  your  particular  aim 
in  reading,  or  to  your  individual  disposition  and  wants.  To  know 
what  books  ought  to  be  read  in  order  to  learn  a  science,  is  in  fact 
frequently  obtained  only  after  the  science  has  been  already  learned. 
Theological  Encyclopaedia  aims  to  supply  the  advice  which  the 
theological  student  here  requires. 

h)  Read  not  the  more  detailed  works  upon  a  science,  until 
you  have  obtained  a  rudimentary  knowledge  of  it  in  general.  A 
conspectus, — a  survey  of  the  science  as  a  whole,  ought,  therefore, 
to  precede  the  study  of  it  in  its  parts.  In  entering  upon  the  study 
of  such  authors  as  Plato,  Aristotle,  Descartes,  Leibnitz,  Locke, 
Berkeley,  Kant,  Schleiermacher,  etc.,  it  is  proper  that  we  first  ob- 
tain a  preparatory  acquantance  with  the  scope  of  their  philosophy 
in  general,  and  of  the  particular  work  on  which  we  are  about  to 
enter. 

c)  Make  yourself  familiar  with  a  science  in  its  present  state, 
before  you  proceed  to  study  it  in  its  chronological  development. 
It  is  thus  improper  to  study  philosophy  historically,  or  in  its  past 
progress,  before  we  have  studied  it  statistically,  or  in  its  actual  re- 
sults. 7,.,/ 

d)  To  avoid  erroneous  and  exclusive  views,  read  and  compare 
together  the  more  important  works  of  every  party.  This  applies, 
in  particular,  in  philosophy,  and  in  such  sciences  as  proceed 
out  of  philosophy.  The  precept  of  the  Apostle,  "Prove  all  things; 
hold  fast  that  which  is  good,"  is  a  percept  which  is  applicable 
equally  in  philosophy  as  in  theology,  but  a  percept  that  has  not 
been  more  frequently  neglected  in  the  one  study  than  in  the  other. 

e)  To  avoid  a  one-sided  development  of  mind,  combine  with 
the  study  of  works  which  cultivate  the  understanding,  the  study  of 
works  which  cultivate  the  taste. 

3)  As  concerns  the  mode  or  manner  of  reading  itself,  there  are 
four  principal  rules. 

a)  Read  that  you  may  accurately  remember,  but  still  more,  that 
you  may  fully  understand.  Reading  is  valuable  only  as  it  may 
supply  to  us  the  materials  which  the  mind  itself  elaborates. 

*  See  Sir  William  Hamilton's  Lectures  on  Logic,  edited  by  Mansel  and  Veitch, 
pp.  486—493. 


rvO 


26  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

b)  Strive  to  compare  the  general  tenor  of  a  work,  before  you 
attempt  to  judge  of  it  in  detail. 

c)  Accommodate  the  intensity  of  the  reading  to  the  importance 
of  the  work.  Some  books  are,  therefore,  to  be  only  dipped  into ; 
others  are  to  be  run  over  rapidly;  and  others  to  be  studied  long  and 
sedulously.*  Rapidity  m  reading  depends,  however,  greatly  on 
our  acquaintance  with  the  subject  of  discussion. 

d)  Regulate  on  the  same  principle  the  extracts  which  you  make 
from  the  works  you  read. 

WRITING. 

Another  important  aid  in  culture  is  writmg.  First  of  all  make 
valuable  excerpts,  especially  from  books  not  in  your  own  library, 
and  to  which  in  future  you  may  not  have  access.  These  excerpts 
are  the  more  valuable  if  they  are  carefully  arranged,  numbered,  and 
indexed.  Some  of  the  most  precious  things  we  read,  should  we  take 
no  note  of  them,  after  a  time  leave  in  the  mind  only  a  tormenting 
recollection  that  they  were  beautiful  and  valuable.  We  can  neither 
recollect  them  sufficiently  to  use  them,  nor  recall  where  we  saw 
them.  These  excerpts  form  collections  of  material  for  all  our  future 
work,  and  a  man  may  have  in  a  narrow  compass  the  quintesscence 
of  a  good  library,  so  far  as  its  contents  would  be  of  use  to  himself. 
Herder  calls  excerpts  the  cells  which  bee-like  industry  constructs, 
the  hives  in  which  it  prepares  its  honey.  It  is  also  an  excellent  plan 
to  make  indexes  of  good  books  which  are  destitute  of  them. 

ORIGINAL   COMPOSITION,  j 

The  old  adage,  nulla  dies  sine  linea,  is  a  good  one.  It  means 
that  we  should  write  something  every  day,  and  that  we  should  take 
care  not  to  write  too  much,  sine  Unea.  Herder's  advice  to  the  young 
man  is  this:  "Young  man,  every  day  write  something,  put  down 
what  you  might  otherwise  forget,  write  of  the  difficulties  that  arise, 
or  of  the  solutions  that  have  come.  The  stylus  (our  stylus  is  the  pen) 
sharpens  the  intellect,  gives  precision  to  our  language,  develops  our 
ideas,  imparts  delightful  activity  to  the  soul.  I  close  as  I  began, 
7iiilla  dies  sine  linea."" 

The  great  ancient  orators  are  unanimous  as  to  the  necessity  of 
writing  to  the  formation  of  a  finished  orator.  They  never  read  their 
speeches,  but  always  wrote  them  if  possible.  An  ancient  orator 
regarded  an  extempore  speech  as  justifiable  only  in  a  case  of  insup- 
erable necessity,  and  the  ancients  believed  that  no  man  who  had  not 
long  and  thorough  culture  as  a  fnriter  could  deliver  an  extempor- 
aneous speech  worthy  of  being  listened  to. 

It  is  well  to  compose  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  make  a  record 
of  all  our  thoughts  as  they  arise.  Afterward  revise  with  great  care. 
After  you  are  matured  as  a  writer,  compose  rapidly,  correct  slowly. 
Do  not  risk  the  losing  of  one  of  your  best  trains  of  thought,  by  hunt- 
ing up  some  trifle  or  settling  some  minute  point  in  spelling  that  can 
be  done  afterward.  You  not  only  lose  the  train  of  thought,  but  you 
lose  the  tone  of  mind  favorable  to  composition. 

Though  writing  is  so  important,  we  should  not  be  too  early 
drawn  to  making  public  what  we  write,  especially  in  print.  Preco- 
cious writers  are  like  precocious  pippins;  they  are  ripened  untimely, 
because  there  is  a  worm  in  them,  and  about  the  time  the  healthy 

*  Compare  also  Bacon's  celebrated  essay,  Of  Studies. 

t  Condensed  from  the  Manuscript  Lectures  of  Dr.  Krauth. 


FORMATION  OF  CIIAIIACTER.  27 

pippins  reach  their  ripeness,  the  precocious  fruit  has  rotted  on  the 
ground.  „ 

Niebuhr  savs,  "there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  wise  young  man, 
and  adds  "a  young  tree  should  grow  wood  and  not  be  in  a  hurry  to 
put  forth  fruit." 

SECTION  XXI. 


Other  men  are  good  as  men  ;  ministers  ought  to  be  good, 
not  only  as  men,  but  as  ministers.  The  man  who  has  not 
learned  goodness  is  not  educated  for  the  ministry.  A  minister 
without  a  pure  character,  whatever  may  be  his  gifts  by  nature 
or  education,  is  a  failure,  even  regarded  as  such  by  bad  and 
careless  men.  The  formation  and  development  of  character, 
is  as  much,  if  not  more,  the  end  of  training  for  the  ministry, 
than  is  mere  scientific  culture.  Those  institutions  who  do  not 
even  attempt  to  mould  the  character  of  those  who  are  prepar- 
ing for  the  ministry,  are  fatally  defective. 

1.  The  student  of  theology  ought  personally  to  be  by  pre- 
eminence a  Christian. 

2.  He  should  be  a  Christian  s ^zi den f— should  bring  to  his 
studies  the  earnest,  patient  spirit,  characteristic  of  a  truly  re- 
generate man.  He  should  fully  realize,  that  he  has  chosen  the 
noblest  profession  of  them  all,  and  that  he  owes  it  to  his  calling, 
to  his  Church,  and  to  his  Saviour,  to  pursue  his  studies  with  a 
consuming  professional  zeal.f  He  should  aim  to  become  a  well- 
grounded  theologian  (i  Tim.  4:  15).  Christian  theology  is  a 
science— the  science  of  divine  things,  and  it  cannot  be  mastered 
without  profound  study  by  day  and  by  night,  and  through 
many  years ;  it  never  will  be  fully  learned  here  on  earth. 
Whether  a  man  has  really  mastered  his  profession  or  not,  will 
be  soon  found  out.  They  who  belitde  theology,  partly  perhaps 
because  they  have  never  studied  it  and  thus  do  not  know  its 
rich  contents,  are  simply  dishonoring  their  profession. 

3.  His  character  should  be  shaped  by  the  probabilities  of 
the  future,  the  hope  of  being  called  in  due  time  of  God  through 
His  Church  to  become  a  Christian  minister.  What  is  sometimes 

*  Condensed  from  the  Manuscript  Lectures  of  Dr.  Krauth. 
t  See  Dr.  Henry  B.  Smith's  lecture  on  "The  spirit  that  should  animate  a  true 
student  of  Theology,"  In  his  Introduction  to  Christian  Theology,  pp.  26—35. 


28  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

confounded  with  the  true  vocation,  to  wit,  a  mere  impulse  or 
desire  to  be  a  minister,  will  prove  not  only  futile,  but  perilous, 
if  it  lead  a  young  man  to  neglect  anything  which  may  qualify 
him  to  respond  to  the  vocation  which  shall  come  at  length 
from  the  Church.  There  are  young  men,  who  puffed  up  with 
the  idea  that  they  have  been  inspired  supernaturally  with  the 
conviction  that  they  should  become  ministers,  exhibit  great 
arrogance  and  self-sufficiency.  What  care  they  for  culture 
either  of  mind  or  character ! 

4.  He  should  consider  his  professor  not  merely  as  his 
teacher,  but  as  one  who  cares  for  his  soul.  The  relation  of  the 
pupil  to  the  professor  should  be  one  of  tender  confidence. 
He  should  not  hesitate  to  open  to  him  his  doubts  and  perplexi- 
ties, his  difficulties  of  conscience,  and  all  in  which  Christian 
sympathy  and  mature  counsel  can  aid  him.  He  ought  to  rea- 
lize that  the  true  professor  is  a  near  and  faithful  friend.  The 
student  who  passes  through  the  course  without  forming  strong 
attachments  to  his  teachers,  and  feeling  the  influence  of  their 
character,  as  well  as  receiving  their  instructions,  has  lost  the 
richest  of  the  gifts  which  it  is  possible  for  them  to  impart.  If 
the  professor  be  the  true  Christian  man,  what  he  is,  is  of  com- 
parable more  value  than  what  he  knows.  There  is  no  educa- 
tion like  that  of  personal  association  with  noble  men. 

5.  The  Christian  student  should  set  before  him  a  high  ideal 
of  character.  And  herein  lies  the  great  value  of  reading  bio- 
graphies of  the  great  and  noble  men  who  have  left  their  im- 
print upon  the  ages.  There  is  no  way  in  which  moral  impres- 
sions so  healthy  and  deep  may  be  left  on  the  conscience  and 
heart.* 

6.  In  all  his  studies  he  should  be  animated  by  supreme 
love  to  truth,  a)  He  should,  first  of  all,  be  spiritually  minded. 
He  should  have  a  living  sense  of  the  reality  of  God's  King- 
dom, as  centering  in  the  person  and  work  of  Jesus  Christ,  b)  He 
should  possess  a  spirit  of  reverential  humility.  "  He  cannot  be 
a  true  divine  who  is  not  awe-struck  and  reverential,  a  humble 


*  See  also  J.  Starr  King's  famous  lecture  "On  Books  and  Reading,"  In  his  Sub- 
stance and  Show,  pp.  354—388. 


FORMATION  OF  CHARACTER.  Zy 

learner,  before  the  mysteries  of  the  Incarnation  and  of  the  Atone- 
ment, who  does  not  feel  and  know  that  in  these  grand  facts 
there  is  that  which  calls  upon  him  to  put  off  his  shoes  from  off 
his  feet,  who  has  not  the  conviction  that  here  is  holy  ground."* 

c)  There  ought  to  be  an  honest  love  of  the  truth  for  its  own 
sake.  To  the  fine  remark  of  Augustine,  "  that  no  truth  is  per- 
fectly known  which  is  not  perfecdy  loved",  we  may  add,  "no 
truth  is  perfectly  known  which  is  not  loved   for  itself  alone." 

d)  The  student  should  also  possess  a  trustful  spirit, — a  belief  that, 
under  the  illumination  of  God's  spirit,  the  truth  which  is  the 
substance  of  theology  may  be  found. 

7.  Be  fervent,  constant,  and  thorough  in  prayer.  Begin  in 
the  morning  with  prayer.  Go  not  to  your  devotions  at  night 
so  wearied  that  you  are  in  the  danger  of  falling  asleep  in  the 
midst  of  them.  Pray  before  you  study  and  in  your  studies,  and 
after  your  studies.  Bene  orasse,  bene  studuisse.  It  is  better  to 
pray  often,  than  to  pray  at  length. 

8.  Examine  yourselves,  your  aims,  the  condition  of  your 
hearts,  your  progress  or  decline  in  the  life  of  God. 

9.  Seek  self-knowledge.  Know  especially  your  besetting 
sin.  Be  faithful  in  watching,  strong  in  resisting,  pitiless  in 
weeding  out.  Your  besetting  sin  may  come  in  the  form  of  in- 
dolence, or  pride,  or  the  love  of  sensuous  enjoyments.  We  do 
not  say  sensual,  for  we  speak  to  you  as  Christians.  Clergymen 
are  often  charged  with  a  peculiar  fondness  for  the  pleasures  of 
the  table.  We  need  always  to  be  on  our  guard.  Avoid  all  use 
of  wine  for  example's  sake.  Avoid  taking  food  at  improper 
times,  when  it  will  cloud  the  reason  or  break  your  rest.  The 
glutton  is  father  of  the  drunkard.  Avoid  all  habits,  which,  on 
an  honest  examination,  seem  to  you  to  be  inconsistent  with  the 
sublime  truth  that  our  bodies  are  "the  temples  of  the  Holy 
Ghost." 

In  regard  to  the  use  of  tobacco  it  may  be  said :  a)  that  in 
any  case,  and  to  any  man,  the  excessive  use  of  it  is  reprehensi- 
ble, b)  Many  use  it  to  whom  it  certainly  brings  no  benefit — 
if  it  has  any  good  in  it,  it  has  none  for  them,  c')  \i  there  be 
feebleness  of  constitution — lack  of  vital  stamina — the  use  of 

♦  See  Dr.  Henry  B.  Smith's  Lecture  already  referred  to. 


30  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

tobacco  is  likely  to  be  very  pernicious,  if  not  fatal,  d)  U,  on 
looking  at  the  whole  matter,  there  is  fixed  in  your  mind  the 
slightest  doubt  of  the  propriety  of  this  practice,  avoid  it  whol- 
ly. Whether  we  eat  or  drink,  or  whatsoever  we  do,  we  should 
do  it  as  unto  the  Lord,  and  to  His  glory,     (i  Cor.  lo:  31). 

As  to  the  grosser  forms  of  sensuous  enjoyment,  to  which 
we  have  referred  as  sensualism,  better  had  that  man  never  been 
born,  who,  with  polluted  soul,  with  an  imagination  loving  to 
linger  on  impurity,  profanes  the  approach  to  the  temple,  and 
at  last  ministers  at  its  altar.  Devils  themselves  may  see  some- 
thing to  pity,  as  compared  with  their  own  lot,  in  the  doom  of 
the  lost  ministers  of  Christ.  The  very  confidence  which  clus- 
ters around  the  minister  of  Christ  and  the  theological  student 
may  expose  them  to  peculiar  temptations ;  while  it  makes  its 
most  solemn  appeal  to  them,  above  all  men,  to  be  pure  in 
heart.  There  is  a  world  of  real  meaning  in  St.  Paul's  words 
for  a  young  minister,  when  he  says  :  ''As  sisters  in  all  purity'' 
(i  Tim.  5:  2).  With  some  the  besetting  sin  is  ostentation  in 
piety.  They  are  in  danger  of  becoming  hypocrites.  They 
run  into  cant  and  pious  twaddle. 

Some  are  passionate,  some  are  bitter,  some  are  officious  and 
meddlesome.  No  minister  is  more  certain  to  destroy  his  in- 
fluence and  make  himself  a  general  nuisance,  than  the  one  who 
is  perpetually  meddling  with  what  does  not  concern  him,  how- 
ever kind  his  feeling  and  good  his  intentions. 

The  besetting  sin  ol  some  is  levity  of  manners,  trifling. 
Their  actions  and  words  seem  to  involve  a  want  of  earnest  pur- 
pose. Be  natural,  be  spontaneous,  but  never  compromise  your 
dignity  as  a  man,  and  the  sacredness  and  dignity  of  your  pro- 
fession as  a  Christian. 

The  besetting  sin  of  some  is  proneness  to  tale-bearing,  the 
betraying  of  confidence.  Some  are  in  danger  of  meanness,  oi 
littleness  of  feeling  and  conduct,  of  narrow  and  envious  emo- 
tion. 

Watch  against  all  that  is  opposed  to  frankness  and  no- 
bleness, all  that  is  the  opposite  of  manliness.  The  Bible  tit- 
le for  ministers  is  ''Men  of  God'' — aim  at  being  such. 


FORMATION  OF  CHARACTER.  31 

ID.  Be  careful  in  the  choice  of  associates.  "He  that  walketh 
with  wise  men  shall  be  wise."  As  opportunity  offers,  cultivate 
the  acquaintance  of  your  superiors  in  knowlege  and  experience. 

II.  Finally,  to  a  healthy  character  morally  and  intellectu- 
ally belong,  to  some  extent,  bodily  health  and  strength. 
Take  exercise  daily  and  judiciously,  as  much  as  possible  in  the 
open  air.  The  day  into  which  you  put  two  hours  of  hearty 
exercise  is  two  hours  longer  than  the  day  in  which  you  take 
none. 

The  feeble  health  of  the  student  and  of  the  minister  is  more 
frequently  the  result  of  an  inexcusable  neglect  of  the  great 
divine  laws  of  health,  than  the  necessary  result  of  their  labors. 

Do  not  try  to  make  the  brain  and  stomach  do  their  full 
work  together. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  in  which  you  feel  indisposed, 
you  will  find  the  following  simple  rules  very  helpful : 

i)  Less  study  and  more  sleep. 

2)  Less  stimulation  and  more  air. 

3)  Less  animal  food  and  more  exercise. 

No  theological  teacher  who  has  comprehended  his  duty  should 
avoid  entering  into  intimate  relations  with  earnest  students. 

The  means  of  theological  study:  Oratio,  7neditatio,  tentatio. 
The  practice  of  quiet  and  frequent  ^Q\f-com.vi\\n\ion,  meditation,  the 
trustful  look  and  elevation  of  the  soul  to  God  in  prayer,  courage 
and  endurance  in  the  conflict  against  doubt,  and  against  the  influ- 
ence of  sloth  and  pride,  hypocricy  and  passion,  bitterness  and  dis- 
couragement—these are  the  methods  by  which  the  theologian  is 
developed  into  a  man  of  God. 

It  is  usual  to  demand  physical  qualifications,  also,  of  the  future 
servant  of  the  Church,  and  not  without  propriety.  A  sound, 
physical  constitution  is  a  fundamental  condition  of  ministerial 
effectiveness.  Good  lungs  are  a  manifest  necessity  for  the 
preacher.  Reading  aloud  and  singing  are  to  be  particularly  recom- 
mended, and  no  less  outdoor  exercise.  There  has  been  a  narrow 
age  w^hich  condemned  physical  exercises  like  gymnastics,  as  not 
suitable  for  a  theologian,  through  a  perversion  of  1  Tim.  4:  8. 
Students  need  have  no  scruples  v/ith  regard  to  indulgence  in  these 
forms  of  exercises,  unless  the  ignorance  or  littleness  of  others  cre- 
ates an  artificial  difticulty,  Prudishness  in  regard  to  exercise  has 
sent  many  a  theological  student  into  a  premature  grave,  and  has 
sent  many  others,  with  little  life,  into  the  most  taxing  of  professions. 
This  prudishness  in  regard  to  exercise  is  a  lingering  of  the  old 
spirit  of  asceticism. 

The  great  importance  of  social  intercourse.  The  imprudence 
of  'forming  marriage  engagements  before  the  end  of  the  theological 
course. 


SELECT  LITERATURE 

OF 

SUBJECTS  DISCUSSED  IN  THE  INTRODUCTION. 

1.     THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA  AND  METHODOLOGY. 

1.  Harless'  Tlieologisolie  Encyklopadie  und  Methodologie.  Neurn- 
berg,  1837. 

2.  Ilofniann's  Encyklopadie  der  Theologie.    Nordlingen,  1879. 

3.  Lange's  Orundriss  der  theologischen  Encyklopadie  mit  Ein- 
schliiss  der  Methodologie.    Heidelberg,  1877. 

4.  Kothe's  Theologische  Encyklopadie.    Wittenberg,  1880. 

5.  Schleiermacher's  Kurze  Darstellung  des  theologischen  Studiums. 

Second  edition.  Berlin,  1830.  Translated  into  English  under 
the  title  of  Brief  Chitline  of  the  study  of  Theology,  by  William 
Farrer.    Edinburgh,  1850. 

2.     BOOKS   AND    READING. 

1.  Blackie,  John  Stuart.    On  Self-Culture. 

A  Vade  Mecum  for  Young  Men  and  Students.  New  York,  1874. 
Very  cheap  editions  can  be  had  of  this  excellent  work. 

2.  Hamerton,  Philip  Gilbert.   The  Intellectual  Life.  Boston,  1884, 

3.  Hints  for  Home  Reading,  a  series  of  chapters  on  books  and 
their  use.  Edited  with  an  introduction  by  Lyman  Abbott. 
New  York,  1880. 

In  this  small  work  we  have  some  notable  contributions  by 
such  authorities  as  Charles  Dudley  Warner,  F.  B.  Perkins,  Ed- 
ward Everett  Hale,  Joseph  Cook,  and  others.  Priced  lists  of 
suggested  selections  of  500, 1,000  and  2,000  volumes  of  the  most 
desirable  and  important  books  are  also  given. 

4.  Porter,  Noah,  Books  and  Reading,  or,  What  books  shall  I  read 
and  How  shall  I  read  them?    New  York,  1881. 

Especially  interesting  are  the  chapters  which  treat  of  "The 
Moral  Influence  of  Books  and  Reading,"  "The  Religious  Cha- 
racter and  Influence  of  Books  and  Reading,"  "A  Christian 
Literature— how  conceived  and  defined,"  "Biography  and 
Biographical  Reading,"  "Religious  Books  and  Sunday  Reading." 

5.  Watts,  Isaac,  The  Improvement  of  the  Mind.  Edited  by 
Joseph  Emerson. 

An  invaluable  little  work,  but  sadly  neglected  of  late. 


SELECT  LITERATURE.  33 

3.     MINISTERIAL   EDUCATION. 

1.     Bridges,  Charles.    The  Christian  Ministry.    New  York,  1847. 

2  Brown  John.  The  Christian  Pastor's  Manual,  a  selection  of 
tracts  on  the  duties,  difficulties,  and  encouragements  of  the 
Christian  Ministry.    Philadelphia,  1837.  ^  ^      4. 

This  work  contains  Mason's  Student  and  Pastor  and  tracts 
by  Doddridge,  Cecil,  John  Newton,  Scott,  Watts,  and  others. 

3.  Guth,  Heinrich.    Pastoralspiegel.    Erlangen,  1873.       ^   ,    .   ^ 

An  excellent  little  work,  which  ought  to  be  translated  into 
English.    It  has  already  been  translated  into  Swedish. 

4.  Herder,  J.  Gottfried.  Brief e  das  Studium  der  Theologie  be- 
trefend.    4  vols.    Second  edition.    1785. 

5  Hood,  Edwin  Paxton.  Lamps,  Pitchers  and  Trumpets.  Lec- 
tures on  the  Vocation  of  the  Preacher.  Two  volumes  m 
one.    New  York,  1872. 

A  quaint  work,  full  of  illustrations,  biographical  and  histor- 
ical, of  every  order  of  pulpit  eloquence,  from  the  great  preachers 
of  all  ages. 

6  Mathews,  William.    Oratory  and  Orators.    Chicago,  1879. 

Very  suggestive  and  stimulating.  Especially  valuable  are 
the  two  final  chapters  on  "Pulpit  Orators"  and  on  "A  Plea  for 
Oratorical  Culture." 

7.  Miller,  Samuel.  Letters  on  Clerical  Manners  arid  Habits. 
Philadelphia.    No  date. 

8.  Oxenden,  Ashton.  Tlie  Pastoral  Office;  its  duties,  difficulties, 
privileges,  and  prospects.    London  and  New  York. 

9  Parker,  Joseph.  Ad  Clerum.  Advices  to  a  Young  Preacher. 
Boston,  1871. 

Fresh  and  inspiring,  an  excellent  work. 

10  Phelps,  Austin.    Men  and  Books.    New  York,  1882. 

In  tweiitv-two  most  interesting  lectures,  "delivered  m  re- 
sponse to  the  practical  inquiries  of  students  on  the  eve  of  en- 
trance upon  their  life's  work,"  Dr.  Phelps  discusses  such  sub- 
iects  as  "The  Study  of  Men,"  "The  Study  of  Literature,  "The 
Choice  of  Authors,"  "The  Study  of  the  Bible,"  "Methods  and 
Plans  of  Study,"  and  other  kindred  topics. 

11  Preacher  and  Pastor.  Edited  and  accompanied  with  an  In- 
troductory Essav  by  Edwards  A.  Park.    New  York,  1849. 

This  work  contains  1)  Fenelon's  incomparable  Dialogues  07i 
Eloquence,  2)  George  Herbert's  delightful  little  work  The 
Country  Parson,  3)  an  abridgment  of  Baxter's  Reformed  Pas- 
tor of  which  a  celebrated  critic  says,  "there  is  scarcely  anything 
superior  to  this  valuable  practical  treatise,  m  close  pathetic  ap- 
peals to  the  conscience  of  the  minister  of  Christ  upon  the 
primary  duties  of  his  office,"  and  4)  Campbell's  Lectures  on 
Pulpit  Eloquence. 


34  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

4.  FORMATION  OF  CHARACTER. 

1.  Alexander,  Joseph  Addison,  Life  of,  by  H.  C.  Alexander. 
2  vols.    New  York,  1870. 

2.  Anselm,  Saint,  Life  of,  by  R.  W.  Church.    London,  1870. 

3.  Arnold,  Thomas,  Life  and  Correspondence  of,  by  Arthur  P. 
Stanley.    New  York,  1880. 

4.  Bernard,  Saint,  Life  and  Times  of,  by  James  C.  Morrison. 
London,  1868. 

5.  Brainerd,  David,  Memoirs  of,  by  Jonathan  Edwards  and  S.  E. 
Dwight.    New  Haven,  1822. 

6.  Bunsen,  Baron  C.  C.  J.,  Memoirs  of,  bv  Baroness  Bunsen. 
2  vols.  Philadelphia,  1869. 

7.  Calixtus,  George,  Life  and  Correspondence  of,  or  German 
Theology  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  by  W.  C.  Dowding. 
Oxford,  1863. 

8.  Carey,  William,  Life  of,  by  J.  Belcher.    Philadelphia,  1853. 

9.  Chalmers,  Thomas,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of,  by  William  Hanna. 
4  vols.    New  York,  1850. 

10.  Chrysostom,  John,  Life  of,  bv  Augustus  Neander.  London, 
1845. 

11.  Deutsch,  Emanuel,  Literary  Remaifis  of,  with  a  brief  Memoir. 
New  York,  1874. 

12.  Erasmus,  Life  and  CJiaracter  as  shown  in  his  Correspondence 
and  Works,  by  Robert  B.  Drummond.     2  vols.    London,  1873. 

13.  Fliedner,  Theodore,  Life  of,  translated  from  the  German. 
London,  1867. 

14.  Guthrie,  Thomas,  Autobiography  afid  Memoir  of,  by  his  Sons. 
2  vols.    New  York,  1874. 

15.  Hall,  Robert,  Life  of,  by  Olinthus  Gregory.    London,  1846. 

16.  Hare,  Augustus  J.  C,  Memorials  of  a  Quiet  Life.  New  York, 
1872. 

17.  Heber,  Reginald,  Life  of    2  vols.    New  York,  1830. 

18.  Hodge,  Charles,  Life  of,  by  A.  A.  Hodge.  New  York,  1880. 

19.  Huss,  John,  Life  and  Times  of.    2  vols.    Boston,  1863. 

20.  Kingsley,  Charles,  Letters  and  Memoirs  of  Life  of  New  York, 
1877. 

21.  Kitto,  John,  Life  of,  by  John  Eadie.    Edinburgh,  1861. 

22.  Livingstone,  David,  Life  of,  bv  W.  G.  Blaikie.  New  York, 
1880. 

23.  Luther,  Martin,  Life  of,  by  Julius  Kostlin.    New  York,  1883. 

24.  MacCracken,  H.  M.  The  Lives  of  the  Leaders  of  our  Churcli 
Universal.    New  York,  1879. 


SELECT   LITERATURE.  35 

25.  Macleod,  Xorman,  Memoir  of,  by  Donald  Macleod.    2  vols. 
New  York  1876. 

26.  Melanchthon,  Philip,  Life  of  by  C.  F.  Ledderhose.    Philadel- 
phia, 1855. 

27.  Robertson,  Frederick  William,  Life  and  Letters  of,  by  Stopford 
A.  Brooke.    New  York,  1878. 

28.  Savonarola,  Life  and  Times  of,  by  W.  R.  Clarke.  London,  1878. 

29.  Schaff,  Philip.    Germany,  its  Universities,  Theology,  and  Reli- 
gion.   Philadelphia,  1857. 

30.  Schleiermacher,  F.  E.,  Life  of,  as  unfolded  in  his  Autobiography 
and  Letters.    2  vols.    London,  1860. 

31.  Smiles,  Samuel.    Self-Help.    Various  editions. 

32.  Smith,  Henry  B.,  Life  and  Work  of  edited  by  his  Wife.    New 
York,  1881.  ' 

33.  Sprague,  William  B.,  Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit.     9  vols. 
New  York,  1857,  etc. 

34.  Stier,  Rudolph,  Life  of,  by  J.  P.  Lacroix.    New  York,  1874. 

35.  Swartz,  Christian  Frederick,    Life   and    Correspondence   of. 
2  vols.    London  1839. 

36.  Todd,  John,  Story  of  TAfe  of,  told  mainly  by  himself.    New 
York,  1876. 

37.  Winkworth,  Catharine.   Christian  Singers  of  Germany.  Phila- 
delphia.   No  date. 

5.     DEVOTIONAL. 

1.  Andrewes,  Bishop,  The  Devotions  of    Oxford,  1848. 

2.  Arndt,  John.    True  Christianity.    Philadelphia,  1868. 

3.  Augustine.    Confessions.    Andover,  1871. 

4.  Bogatzky's  Golden  Treasury.    New  York,  1867. 

5.  Bonar,  Horatius.    Hymns  of  Faith  and  Hope.     3  vols.     New 

York,  1872. 

6.  Bunyan,  John.    PilgriirVs  Progress.    Various  editions. 

7.  Gerhardt,  Paul.    Spiritual  Songs. 

8.  Goulburn,  Edward  M.    Thoughts  on  Personal  Religion.    New 

York;  1876. 

An  Lntroduction  to  the  Devotional  Stu- 
dy of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  New  York, 
1866. 

The  Pursuit  of  Holiness.    New  York, 

1870. 

9.  Huntington,   F.  D.    Hymns  of  the   Ages.    3    vols.    Boston, 
1860—64. 

10.  Keble,  John.    The  Christian  Year.    Various  editions. 


36  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

11.  Kempis,  Thomas  A.  Of  the  Imitation  of  Christ.  Various 
editions. 

12.  March,  F.  A,  Latin  Hymns  with  English  Notes.  New  York, 
1874. 

13.  Monod,  Adolphe.  Luoilla  and  the  Ahbe,  or  The  Reading  of  the 
Bible.    Second  edition.    New  York,  1864. 

14.  Palmer,  Roimdell.  The  Book  of  Praise.  Selected  from  the 
best  English  hymn-writers.    Cambridge.  1865. 

15.  Seiss,  Joseph  A.    The  Giolden  Altar.    New  York,  1883. 

16-   Taylor,  Jeremy.    Holy  Living.  Various  editions. 
Holy  Dying.   Various  editions. 

17.  Tholuck,  A.  Hours  of  Christian  Devotion.  From  the  German. 
New  York,  1875. 

18.  Wilson,  Bishop.    Sacra  Privata.    New  York,  1863. 

19.  Winkworth,  Catharine.  Lyra  Grermanica.  Hymns  for  the 
Sundays  and  Chief  Festivals  of  the  Christian  Year.  Trans- 
lated from  the  German.  First  and  Second  series.  New  York, 
1856,  1864. 

The  German  and  the  Scandinavian  Languages  are  especially 
rich  in  Devotional  Literature.  It  is  only  necessary  to  refer  to 
the  works  of  such  authors  as  Ahlfeld,  John  Arndt,  Besser, 
Bring,  J.  C.  and  S.  L.  (Swedish),  Dieft'enbach,  Emanuelson 
(Swedish),  Francke,  Funcke,  John  Gerhard,  Paul  Gerhardt, 
Gerok,  Louis  Harms,  Lohe,  Luther,  Heinrich  Mueller,  Rosenius 
(Swedish),  Christian  Scriver,  Tholuck,  and  others. 

6.  WORKS  FOR  GENERAL  REFERENCE. 

1.  Anthon's  Classical  Dictionary. 

2.  Crabb's  English  Synonyms. 

3.  Harper's  Latin  Dictionary.    Revised  edition. 

4.  Haydn's  Dictionary  of  Dates,  with  American  supplement. 

5.  Johnson's  Neiv  Unit^ersal  Cyclojxpdia.    4  vols. 

6.  Liddell  and  Scott's  Greek  Lexicon.    Seventh  edition. 

7.  Roget's  Thesaurus  of  English  Words. 

8.  Skeat's  Etymological  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language. 

9.  Spiers  and  Surenne's  French- English  Dictionary. 

10.  Webster's  Dictionary,  Unabridged. 

11.  Whitney's  German-English  Dictionary. 


PART    I. 

THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPAEDIA,  GENERAL  PART. 

Its  external  Relations  to  the  other  Sciences,  and  the  different 
Tendencies  in  it. 

SECTION  XXII. 

THEOLOGY    AS    A  POSITIVE    SCIENCE. 

Theology,  like  law  and  medicine,  is  a  positive  or  applied 
science.  It  does  not  deal  with  pure  abstractions  or  with  truth 
simply  for  truth's  sake,  but  is  conditioned  by  its  relation  to 
the  life  and  needs  of  the  Church  and  of  mankind.  Language 
is  not  studied  by  the  Theologian  as  it  is  by  the  philologist. 
History  is  not  to  him  what  it  is  to  the  mere  investigator  and 
general  reader.  When  science  in  theology  is  no  longer  hallowed, 
when  it  is  considered  as  the  end  and  not  as  the  means,  it  falls 
from  its  great  intent,  and  diffuses  curses  instead  of  blessings. 

To  the  botanist  every  plant  is  as  such  alike.  To  the  physi- 
cian, on  the  other  hand,  a  plant  is  interesting  only  as  a  part  of 
Materia  Medica.  Theology  is  related  to  truth  more  after  the 
analogy  of  the  physician  than  of  the  botanist.  _  , 

Theology  manifests  a  closer  relationship  with  law  and  medicme, 
the  remaining  positive  sciences,  than  either  of  these  bears  to  the 
other.  The  Theologian  must  possess  the  gift  of  oratory  m  com- 
mon with  the  lawyer,  and  be  closely  connected  with  the  work  of 
the  physician,  particularly  in  the  field  of  pastoral  theology.  He  is 
accordingly  required  to  unite  in  himself  qualities  which  are  usually 
presumed  in  both  the  lawyer  and  the  physician, 

SECTION    XXIII. 
Hence  theology   demands   a   high   measure  of  practical 
adaptation  to  its  ends.    It  is  a  science,  in  order  that  it  may  be 
an  art,  for  art  is  appHed  science.     The  theologian  thinks  that 
he  may  move  men  to  activity. 

SECTION    XXIV. 

THEOLOGY    IN    ITS    HISTORICAL    DEVELOPMENT. 

As  Christian  theology  pre-supposes  the  existence  of  the 
Christian  religion   and  the  Christian  Church,   and  embraces 


38  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

those  forms  of  knowledge  and  practical  skill  which  arise 
from  the  characteristic  features  of  that  religion  and  Church, 
the  scientific  character  of  Christian  theology  cannot  be  com- 
prehended apart  from  the  development  of  these  in  history. 

The  origin  and  usage  of  the  word  theology.  In  order  to  under- 
stand the  science  of  theology,  the  student  must  have  a  preliminary 
knowledge  of  its  history.  Various  considerations  led  to  a  scientific 
treatment  of  Theologv.  The  contents  of  Theology.  The  form  of 
the  various  doctrines  influenced  by  philosophy.  The  efforts  made 
to  reconcile  theology  and  philosophy,  faith  and  knowledge.  The 
influence  of  Aristotle  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  A'pologists  of  the  second  century.  Origen  {d.  254).  Atha- 
nasius.  (rZ.  373).  Augustine  ((Z.  430).  Abelard  (^.  1142).  Thomas 
Aquinas  {d.  1274).  The  Mystics  of  the  14th  century.  Eeuchhn 
{d.  1523))  The  Lutheran  and  Reformed  theologians  of  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries.  Spener  {d.  1705)  and  Pietism.  Kant  {d.  1804). 
Schleiermacher  {d.  1834). 

It  has  been  the  task  of  modern  Theology,  before  all  else,  to 
comprehend  its  own  nature  in  the  light  of  history,  and  to  secure  a 
clear  idea  of  its  relation  to  the  present  age.  Some  would  ignore 
the  whole  of  the  historical  development  of  theology  and  reconstruct 
everything  anew  from  the  beginning;  others  would  return  to  the 
theology  of  the  17th  century,  while  still  others  would  build  on  the 
theology  of  the  16th  century. 

All  that  in  other  lands  has  acquired  reputation  as  theological 
soienee  is  more  or  less  closely  connected  with  the  course  of  develop- 
ment in  Germany. 

SECTION    XXV. 

RELATION    OF    THEOLOGY    TO    PREPARATORY     CULTURE. 

Like  every  positive  science,  theology  presupposes  a  strictly 
scientific  preparatory  culture  in  the  form  of  a  good  general 
education.  It  regards  the  pure  sciences  partly  as  preliminary 
forms  of  knowledge,  and  partly  as  continuous  and  auxiliary. 
The  former  are  cdXX^d  propaedeutic  (see  Greek  derivation),  the 
latter  boethetic  (see  Greek).  Some  branches  of  knowledge  are 
both  propaedeutic  and  boethetic,  i.  e.,  we  use  them  before  we 
study  theology,  and  use  them  while  in  its  study — as  for  ex- 
ample, Latin,    Greek,  Hebrew,  German  and  History. 

SECTION  XXVI. 

THE  RELATIVE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  PREPARATORY  SCIENCES. 

In  their  application  to  theology,  the  first  rank  among  the 
pure  sciences  is  taken  by  philology  and  history.  The  mathe- 
matical   and   physical  studies   take   the   second   rank.     "We 


RELATIVE  IMPORTANCE  OF  PREPARATORY  SCIENCES.      39 

affirm,  therefore,"  says  Hagenbach,  "that  the  classic  humanistic 
culture  is  and  abides  the  only  firm  foundation  of  a  sound 
Protestant  Theology." 

The  studv  of  philology  is  of  great  importance  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  niind.  The  scientitic  study  of  your  own  mother-tongue 
is  absolutely  necessary,  but  the  power  of  language  to  cultivate  the 
mind  only  becomes  f lilly  manifest  when  the  ability  to  compare 
several  languages  with  each  other  has  been  acquired.  Besides  the 
formal  value  for  the  cultivation  of  the  mind,  the  knowledge  of 
Greek  and  Latin  is  not  only  of  great  practical  utility  in  the  study 
of  theology,  but  to  the  Theologian  a  matter  of  absolute  necessity. 
In  modern  times  the  value  of  classical  studies  has  been  much 
discussed. 

Of  the  necessity  of  obtaining  a  clear  and  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  history  of  the  ancient  world,  and  of  history  in  general,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  speak. 

While  the  study  of  languages  and  of  history  thus  forms  the 
real  foundation  for  theological  study,  mathematics  and  the  natural 
sciences  are  also  of  great  value. 

The  formative  value  of  mathematics  is  unquestioned;  it  af- 
fords the  test  of  the  mind's  demonstrative  power,  and  is  sometimes 
called  a  practical  logic,  like  the  science  of  language.  "Hence,"  says 
Herder,  "as  Pythagoras  had  inscribed  upon  the  walls  of  his  lec- 
ture-room, 'Without  geometry  let  none  enter  here,'  so  the  inscrip- 
tion on  the  doors  of  our  higher  institutions  of  learning  should  read 
'Without  geometrv  let  none  graduate'." 

The  philosophical  value  of  mathematics,  however,  has  been 
overrated,  and  Bengel  truly  remarks,  "Mathematics  affords  useful 
aid  in  certain  directions,  but  it  dethrones  the  understanding  in  re- 
lation to  truths  which  lie  outside  its  sphere."  Mathematical  modes 
of  thought  are  as  unsatisfactory  in  theology  as  the  juridical. 

The  value  of  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences.  Astronomy,  Bi- 
ology, Chemistry,  Geology,  etc.,  especially  in  the  department  of 
Apologetics.  It  may  truly  be  said,  that  in  no  other  profession  is 
all  knowledge  of  so  much  service,  as  in  the  study  of  theology.  In 
our  dav  the'neglect  of  certain  theologians  to  acquaint  themselves 
with  natural  science  and  its  results  is  especially  inexcusable.  In 
the  face  of  the  ignorance  that  results,  unbelief  will  be  able  to  ap- 
peal more  shamelessly  and  defiantly  to  the  progress  of  those  sci- 
ences 

The  following  table  given  by  Zockler  may  be  of  interest  in  this 
connection : 


40  theological  encyclopedia. 

God. 

Theology. 

' ^ • , 

THE  NATURAL  WORLD.  SPIRITUAL  LIFE. 

The  Natural  Sciences.  Historical  Sciences. 

A.  Theoretical.                              A.  Theoretical. 
Mathematics,    Astrophysics,  History,    Philology,    Ethnol- 
Geophysics,  Chemistry,    Bi-  ogy,  Linguistics,  etc. 
ology,  etc. 

B.  Practical.  B.  Practical. 

Medicine,    Kural    Economy,         Juris-pruclence,         National 
Technics,  etc.                                  Economies,  etc. 
^ ■> 

Man. 

Philosophy. 

SECTION  XXVII. 

relation  of  theology  TO  THE  FINE  ARTS  AND  TO 
GENERAL  CULTURE. 

In  coBJ unction  with  scientific  culture,  it  is  desirable  also 
that  there  should  be  a  cultivation  of  the  aesthetic  feeling.  A 
sense  of  the  beautiful  and  of  the  ideal  is  needful  in  theology. 
No  man  without  this  can  enter  into  the  meaning  of  much  that 
is  most  sublime  in  the  Word  of  God. 

The  Theologian  prizes  true  rhetoric  as  giving  grace  to 
style,  and  the  principles  of  oratory  as  an  aid  in  effective 
delivery.  He  should  love  nature,  and  if  he  loves  her  aright, 
he  will  find  her  a  quickener  to  a  fondness  for  painting,  sculpture, 
and  architecture  in  their  holy  relations  and  uses.  In  the 
pulpit,  and  hardly  less  at  the  altar,  a  refined  taste  will  be  a 
source  of  pure  influence.  Especially  is  music,  when  sanctified 
to  its  highest  ends,  a  form  of  art  which  should  be  dear  to  the 
theologian  and  pastor.  The  pastor  teaches  as  much  almost 
by  what  he  is  as  by  what  he  says.  And  the  real  difference  be- 
tween different  ministers  is  not  so  much  in  what  they  say  and 
do  as  in  how  they  say  and  do  it.  True  culture,  then,  is  one 
element  of  real  force. 

More  attention  should  be  given  to  stimulating  the  sense  of  the 
beautiful  in  early  youth.  Early  practice  in  written  as  well  as  oral 
expression,  and  also  in  free  discourse,  will  especially  be  of  inestima- 
ble value  to  the  future  theologian.  Rhetoric  and  poetry  in  the  field 
of  art  are  parallel  with  philology  and  history  in  the  field  of  science. 
The  great  importance  of  art  will  become  apparent  in  connection 
with  Liturgies.  Without  a  knowledge  of  music  the  theologian  will 


THE  RELATION  OF  THEOLOGY  TO  PHILOSOPHY.  41 

be  debarred  from  entering  on  an  essential  department  of  Christian 
worship.  Luther  held  that  "next  to  the  Word  of  God  nothing  is  so 
deserving  of  esteem  and  praise  as  music." 

SECTION  XXVIII. 

THE    RELATION    OF  THEOLOGY    TO  PHILOSOPHY.*) 

Philosophy  is  to  be  the  constant  attendant  of  theology, 
without,  however,  any  mingling  of  the  two  in  such  a  way  as 
could  possibly  confound  them.  Each  has  its  appropriate 
sphere,  each  must  do  its  own  work,  though  the  influence  of  a 
pure  form  of  either  on  the  other  is  of  the  highest  kind. 
Philosophy  should  be  regarded  as  the  companion  of  theology 
rather  than  as  the  antecedent  to  it.  In  regard  to  the  useful- 
ness of  philosophy  in  theology,  there  has  been  a  deversity 
of  opinion  from  the  beginning.  The  words  of  St.  Paul  (Col. 
2:  8),  imply  no  condemnation  of  a  true  philosophy,  but  the 
very  contrary.  He  implies  that  there  is  a  true  philosophy 
which  is  no  empty  deceit,  is  not  after  the  tradition  of  men, 
and  is  according  to  Christ.  The  Word  of  God  pre- supposes 
a  philosophy.  Nor  can  there  be  thinking,  nor  a  presentation 
of  thought,  which  does    not   involve    some  philosophy. 

The  proper  attitude  of  philosophv  and  theology  lay  at  the 
bottom  of  the  contests  during  the  Middle  Ages  between  the 
Scholastics  and  the  positive  theologians.  Among  the  Scholastics 
themselves  the  struggle  between  the  Realists  and  Nominalists 
had  its  influence  upon  theology.  The  Reformation  was  strongly 
opposed  to  the  then  dominant  philosophy.  Luther  spoke 
with  special  violence  against  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  and 
perverted  reason,  and  barren  speculation  in  general.  In  this 
respect  he  was  an  anticipative  Bacon.  The  animus  of  Bacon 
and  his  method  were  but  applications  in  the  secular  sphere  of 
Luther's  philosophical  tendency  in  theology. 

When  we  look  back  upon  the  Middle  Ages  we  are  com- 
pelled to  acknowledge  that  with  all  the  censure  heaped  in  af- 
ter times  upon  the  barrenness  of  Scholastic  speculation,  it 
was  wonderfully  acute,  and  it  has  rich  results  to  invite  the 
scholar  to  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  it. 
*    Based  on  Ki-auth  and  Hagenbach. 


42  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Profound  scholars  in  the  history  of  speculative  thinking, 
like  Sir  William  Hamilton — the  most  largely  traveled  man 
in  this  walk  among  the  English  writers  of  this  century — accord 
the  highest  praise  to  the  scholastic  philosophy  in  many  of  its 
aspects,  and  it  rules  very  largely  the  ignorant  world  which 
derides  it.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  since  the  Refor- 
mation, the  Jansenists,  who  represent  the  purer  and  more  re- 
formatory tendency,  were  opposed  to  the  philosophy  most  in 
favor  in  their  Church.  The  Jesuists  were  in  favor  of  philosophy, 
but  the  philosophy  they  favored  was  a  philosophy  which 
favored  them. 

Subsequently  to  the  Reformation,  the  influence  of  the 
Aristotelian  philosophy  began,  after  a  short  reaction,  to  be 
more  and  more  felt,  as  indeed  in  some  of  its  aspects  it  well 
deserved  to  be.  Luther's  antagonism  was  in  fact  directed 
more  against  the  scholastic  abuses  of  Aristotle,  than  against 
Aristotle  himself. 

Modern  philosophy  has  attempted  to  solve  its  problems 
by  two  great  generic  methods — the  first,  the  method  of 
experience ;  the  second,  the  method  of  speculation,  that  is,  of 
scientific  evolution  from  ideas.  Bacon  is  the  great  leader  in 
the  first,  by  his  empiricism,  and  Descartes  led  in  the  second 
by  rationalism. 

The  fundamental  principle  oi  Bacon  (1561 — 1626^)  is,  that 
truth  is  not  to  be  sought  from  ideas  by  evolution,  but  through 
experience  and  induction.  Very  different  estimates  have  been 
formed  of  the  value  of  Bacon's  labors  and  of  his  mental  great- 
ness. Maucalay's  Essay  on  Bacon  expresses  very  eloquently 
the  accepted  opinion  ;  and  in  consonance  with  it  a  recent  wri- 
ter in  our  own  country  ^Dr.  Noah  Porter)  in  his  admirable 
work  on  the  "Human  Intellect"  says :  "Bacon  was  one  of  the 
most  gifted  benefactors  of  his  race,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
men  of  any  people."  And  it  must  be  conceded  that,  while  his 
influence  was  injurious  in  intellectual  science,  it  was  of  the 
highest  value  in  the  world  of  physical  investigation. 

Closely  associated  with  the  name  of  Bacon  is  that  of 
Thomas   Hobbes    (1588 — 1679).      The    philosophical    stand- 


THE  RELATION  OF  THEOLOGY  TO  PHILOSOPHY.  43 

point  of  Hobbes  may  be  described  as  an  application  of  the 
Baconian  method  and  principles  to  the  study  of  man,  and  the 
results  of  this  process  were  a  psychology  and  a  morals 
utterly  antagonistic,  not  only  to  Christianity,  but  to  religion 
in  general.  Neither  God  nor  religion  has  any  proper  place 
in  his  system.  Thoroughly  materialistic,  it  bore  in  its 
consequences  — speculative,  civil,  and  moral — its  own  annihi- 
lation. The  style  of  Hobbes  is  a  model  of  the  didactic, 
clear  and  deep  as  the  pen  of  an  engraver.  Hallam  says 
truly,  that  one  could  no  more  change  a  word  or  expression 
in  it  than  in  the  exactest  mathematical  formula.  It  does 
its  duty  in  distincdy  expressing  distinct  thought. 

Against  Descartes  (1596— 1650)  a  powerful  opposition 
arose  in  the  Church,  In  the  Netherlands  his  philosophy 
caused  violent  controversies.  He  is  the  great  master  of 
the  system  of  philosophical  rationalism. 

Rationalism  divides  itself  into  two  forms,  dualism  and 
monism.  In  the  dualism  of  Descartes  the  opposition  be- 
tween the  subjective  and  the  objective  is  retained ;  in  it,  spirit 
is  a  real  essence,  and  matter  is  a  real  essence,  two  essences, 
hence  dualism.  Monism,  under  the  same  general  system  of 
rationalism,  is  represented  by  Spinoza. 

Over  against  its  serious  errors,  the  philosophy  of  Des- 
cartes has  given  to  the  world  great  and  fruitful  truths,  out 
of  which  modern  philosophy  has  developed  most  important  re- 
sults in  every  direction.  He  established  the  authority  of  reason 
in  its  own  sphere,  and  on  the  witness  of  consciousness  he  con- 
structed a  barrier  sufficiently  strong  to  resist  the  efforts  of 
skepticism  and  a  narrow,  false  theology.  He  has  marked  the 
profound  distinction  between  what  pertains  to  soul  and  what 
pertains  to  body,  and  between  the  method  proper  in  the  study 
of  thought  itself  and  that  which  is  proper  in  the  study  of  its 
organs. 

But  not  alone  in  method,  but  in  results  Descartes  has  great 
merit.  Among  other  things,  he  has  shed  special  light  on  the 
idea  of  the  infinite,  and  has  fixed  upon  it  an  argument  for  the 
existence  of  God.    Pantheism  still  lifts  its  head,  but  Deism  may 


44  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

be  said  to  have  been  philosophically  annihilated  by  Descartes. 
The  errors  of  Descartes'  system  have  passed  away,  his  truths 
still  abide — they  are  fixed  in  the  heart  of  modern  philosophy, 
and  it  lives  by  them. 

The  immortal  Leibnitz  (1646 — 1716),  the  father  of  Ger- 
man philosophy,  was  at  once  one  of  the  most  independent 
thinkers  and  one  of  the  profoundest  scholars  of  his  age,  and  of 
all  time.     His  influence  has  been  greatly  felt  in  theology. 

Spinoza  (1632 — 1677)  ceased  to  be  a  Jew  without  be- 
coming a  Christian.  He  attempted  to  establish  an  absolute 
unity  on  the  basis  of  absolute  realism  or  pantheism.  His 
influence  upon  our  time  is  larger  than  upon  his  own.  He  has 
greatly  impressed  himself  upon  much  of  the  subtlest  specula- 
tion of  our  century.  The  favorite  heresy  in  the  speculation  of 
our  time  is  pantheism,  in  some  of  its  multiform  shapes,  and  to 
this  Spinoza  has  largely  contributed.  The  English  Deists  and 
the  French  Encyclopaedists  brought  the  name  of  philosophy 
into  disgrace;  a  philosopher  came  to  mean,  at  least,  a  free- 
thinker, if  not  an  absolute  Atheist. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  1 8th  century.  Wolf  had  introduced 
a  modification  of  the  philosophy  of  Leibnitz  in  a  strictly  demon- 
strative method.  He  was  assailed  by  the  Pietists  at  Halle, 
driven  away  in  1723,  but  restored  to  his  chair  in  1740.  Philo- 
sophy now  came  into  honor,  and  was  considered  a  means  of 
supporting  orthodox  views,  until  Kant  (1724 — 1804)  destroyed 
this  connection.  From  the  time  ol  Kant  it  was  impossible  for 
theology  to  ignore  the  progress  of  philosophy,  without  destroy- 
ing its  own  scientific  character. 

Not  until  the  rise  of /^/r/z/<?'^  (1762 — 1 8 14)  absolute  Sub- 
jective Idealism,  of  6Vy^f//z>2;^'^  (1778— 18.54)  "Doctrine  of  the 
Absolute,"  and  oi  Hegel  s  ( 1770 — 1831)  "Doctrine  of  the  Imma- 
nent Spirit,"  were  the  life  questions  of  Christianity,  which  Kant 
had  set  aside  by  his  moralism  with  its  contracted  scope,  lifted 
again  to  become  speculative  questions  of  philosophy.  Jacobi, 
Fries,  and  others  pressed  the  distinction  between  faith  and 
knowledge;  others,  as  Herbart  and  his  school,  placed  them- 
selves in  an  attitude  of   indifference  toward  theology.     Schlei- 


THE  RELATION  OF  THEOLOGY  TO  PHILOSOPHY.  45 

ermacher,  inclined  as  he  was  to  profound  speculation,  and 
considered  by  his  countrymen  as  the  most  finished  logician  of 
his  time,  a  Plato  in  these  last  days,  wished  philosophy  and  theo- 
logy to  be  kept  apart,  although  his  own  theology  is  pene- 
trated to  the  core  by  his  philosophy.  He  considered  that 
theology  had  nothing  to  do  with  speculation,  any  more  than 
religion,  which  he  considered,  a  matter  of  emotion,  has  to  do 
with  thinking. 

The  adherents  of  the  school  of  Hegel,  after  their  master's 
death,  divided  into  two  parts,  of  which  one  called  the  "right 
wing,"  was  on  the  side  of  Christianty ;  the  other,  or  "left  wing," 
took  ground  against  Christianity,  and  sank  to  the  vulgar  infi- 
delity under  the  name  of  Nihilism.  Others,  under  speculative 
influence,  have  attempted  to  form  an  independent  philosophi- 
cal foundation  for  Christianity,  and  to  bring  about  a  harmony 
between  philosophy  and  revealed  truth.  At  the  present  mo- 
ment the  anti-Christian  or  un-Christian  philosophers  seem 
wearied  of  the  whole  process  of  unaided  speculadon,  acknow- 
ledge its  barrenness  and  its  inability  to  determine  truth. 

In  this  rapid,  historical  sketch,  it  is  manifest  that  theology, 
without  any  formal  connection  with  philosophy,  has  always 
occupied  close  relations  either  of  sympathy  or  of  antagonism 
to  it,  never  of  absolute  indifference.  It  is  clear,  that  whatever 
might  seem  to  be  the  benefit  of  ignoring  philosophy,  it  is  im- 
possible to  ignore  it.  It  is  utterly  out  of  the  question  to  take 
an  intelligent  atdtude  to  the  theology  of  our  day,  without  some 
philosophical  culture,  if  it  only  be  to  reject  philosophy.  To 
trample  upon  it  efifectually  we  must  have  some  knowledge  of  it. 
It  will  not  do  simply  to  be  familiar  with  the  old-fashioned  com- 
mon-places of  philosophy.  It  is  impossible,  indeed,  to  com- 
prehend, not  to  say  the  full  meaning,  but  the  very  words, 
singly  taken,  of  the  most  recent  theologians  of  Germany,  with- 
out a  knowledge  of  the  philosophical  system  which  underlies 
their  thinking  and  terminology. 

The  study  of  philosophy  is  therefore  a  necessity,  and  if, 
as  is  for  the  most  part  the  case,  there  has  been  no  attention 
given  to  it,  or  at  least  a  very  superficial  one,  in  the  preparatory 


46  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

training  of  the  student,  it  would  be  desirable  to  embrace,  in  the 
theological  training  proper,  the  most  necessary  elements  of  it 
as  they  bear  upon  religion.  As  we  cannot  battle  with  Rom- 
anism without  understanding  it  thoroughly,  so  we  must  know 
infidelity  in  all  its  compass  and  subtlety  to  overthrow  it.  We  can 
never  expose  the  weakness  of  any  system  effectually,  until  we 
understand  its  strength.  If  it  be  granted,  therefore,  that  all 
the  philosophy  of  our  time  is  perplexingly  intricate  and  mis- 
chievous, still  must  we,  in  spite  of  this,  and  in  some  sense  in 
consequence  of  it,  study  this  philosophy  thoroughly. 

If  it  were  confessedly  pure  and  useful  we  might  the  better 
leave  it  to  itself  The  more  sure  we  feel  that  it  is  the  serpent 
which  is  luring  men  to  eat  the  forbidden  fruit,  the  more  we 
should  endeavor  to  put  ourselves  into  a  position  to  crush  it 
beneath  our  feet. 

But  the  study  of  philosophy  need  not  be  defended  as  a  sort 
of  necessary  evil;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  of  direct  and  incalcul- 
able value. 

The  mental  confusion  which  is  sometimes  produced  by 
philosophical  study,  or  by  what  passes  for  it,  is  doubtless  often 
the  result  of  defects  in  the  teacher  or  in  the  method.  The 
terminology  itself,  especially  in  philosophers  of  the  present 
day,  is  often  pedandcally  abstruse ;  yet  a  knowledge  of  it  is 
necessary.  One  great  source  of  difficulty  is  the  disposition  of 
metaphysicians  to  use  old  terms  in  new  senses.  You  carry 
from  one  system  a  set  of  terms  with  a  certain  meaning,  and 
for  a  time  the  next  system  is  a  chaos  to  you,  because  the 
familiar  terms  have  unfamiliar  senses.  It  is  more  perplexing 
than  to  learn  an  entirely  new  language.  Imagine  a  language 
which  you  were  to  study — every  word  of  which  was  English 
in  sound — and  not  a  sound  of  which  had  an  English  meaning. 
The  later  metaphysicians  persist  in  putting  their  new  wine  into 
the  old  bottle. 

The  object  of  the  study  of  philosophy  is  not  so  much  to  fur- 
nish results  all  made  up  to  the  learner's  hand,  as  it  is  to  teach 
him  to  think  philosophically.  Fischer,  in  his  "Life  of  Kant," 
says :  "Times  without  number  Kant  declared  from  his  professor's 


THE  RELATION  OF  THEOLOGY  TO  PHILOSOPHY.  47 

chair,  that  no  one  was  to  learn  philosophy  from  him,  but  only 
to  philosophized  In  this  he  merely  echoed  a  famous  ancient 
saying. 

In  the  use  of  philosophical  illustrations,  especially  in  the 
pulpit,  we  should  not  only  be  careful  to  employ  such  as  are  in 
themselves  intelligible,  but  we  should  be  careful  not  to  obscure 
by  philosophical  phrases  what  would  be  clear  enough  to  an 
ordinary  hearer  if  couched  in  ordinary  language. 

For  this  reason,  and  for  others,  it  is  a  good  exercise  to 
endeavor,  as  nearly  as  possible,  to  express  philosophical  ideas 
in  popular  terms.  Translate  your  author's  language  into  your 
own.  See  how  nearly  you  can  express  familiar  philosophical 
ideas  without  using  the  ordinary  term.  Discuss  subject  and 
object  without  the  use  of  these  terms.  Anything  which  re- 
quires the  absolute  and  purely  technical  phrases  of  philosophy 
should  be  excluded  from  the  pulpit,  unless  it  be  in  sermons 
to  the  clergy,  or  in  some  other  exceptional  cases. 

We  should  avoid  the  weakness  which  is  so  common, 
especially  among  those  who  know  nothing  of  the  great  German 
thinkers,  the  weakness  of  sitting  in  judgment  upon  the  systems 
of  modern  philosophy  before  we  have  mastered  them. 

As  a  pure,  severe  mental  discipline,  nothing  perhaps  is 
equal  to  a  complete  study  of  modern  German  metaphysics,  for 
one  any  who  has  traced  German  thinking  from  Kant  to  this  hour 
knows  that  there  is  a  logical  sequence  between  the  so-called 
transcendental  idealism  of  Kant,  through  the  subjective  idealism 
of  Fichte,  to  the  objective  idealism  of  Schelling,  and  to  the 
extrf  m>:st  views  of  Hegel. 

Philosophy,  should,  however,  not  be  studied  in  an  isolated 
way;  it  should  be  conjoined  with  positive  studies,  with  the 
study  of  history  and  of  language.  It  is  desirable  that  philo- 
sophy should  connect  its  spirit  with  the  highest  practical  ends 
of  real  life. 

It  is  good  advice,  frequently  given  for  the  student,  to  take 
up  a  particular  system  and  master  it.  Among  the  systems 
which  give  intellectual  exercise  of  special  value  may  be  men- 
tioned   Plato    and    Aristotle,    among   the  ancients;  Descartes, 


48  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Leibnitz,  Kant  and  his  successors,  German  and  French,  down 
to  Hegel  and  Cousin,  among  the  Continental  metaphysicians; 
among  the  English  metaphysicians,  Locke,  Berkeley,  and 
recently  Bain,  and  Herbert  Spencer;  among  the  Scotch,  Reid, 
Dugald  Stewart,  Brown,  and  Sir  William  Hamilton,  with 
whose  writings  should  be  compared  the  views  of  his  ablest 
reviewer,  John  Stewart  Mill. 

For  the  latest  phases  of  German  thought  it  is  desirable  to 
examine  the  philosophical  writings  of  Schleiermacher,  Scho- 
penhauer, Herbart,  Beneke,  and  Lotze.  Among  living  repre- 
sentatives of  philosophy  in  America  may  be  mentioned,  as 
worthy  of  study,  McCosh  and  Porter. 

When  it  is  possible,  read  the  author  through  in  the  origi- 
nal. Remember  that  you  know  more  in  understanding  one 
page  or  one  sentence  of  an  author  thorougly,  than  in  mis- 
understanding or  in  half  understanding  a  thousand  pages. 

Read  a  philosopher  as  your  read  every  great  author,  in  the 
connection  of  his  works  with  each  other,  or  of  the  relation  of 
the  parts  of  his  one  work  with  the  other  parts,  and  also  in  its 
connection  with  its  own  time,  and  as  largely  as  you  can  with 
the  works  which  helped  to  originate  it  and  which  it  helped  to 
originate.  Leibnitz,  for  example,  is  called  the  father  of  German 
philosophy — therefore  in  reading  Kant,  make  yourself  ac- 
quainted with  Leibnitz.  Kant  was  stimulated  to  a  new  investiga- 
tion of  the  grounds  of  certainty  by  the  skepticism  of  Hume.  To 
understand  Kant  you  must  know  something  of  the  philoso- 
phical writings  of  Hume.  Hume  again  derived  his  skepticism 
by  applying  to  mind  the  principles  which  Berkeley  had  applied 
to  matter.  Berkeley  had  been  driven  to  his  idealism  by  way  of 
reaction  against  the  sensuous  tendencies  of  the  philosophy  of 
Locke  and  the  extravagance  of  the  dualism  of  Descartes  and 
Malebranche.  To  understand  Kant,  therefore,  you  must  pay 
attention  to  the  systems  of  all  these  writers  in  their  mutual 
relations.  But  Kant  himself  stands  neither  at  the  end  nor  in 
the  beginning  of  a  new  movement,  but  in  the  middle.  To  un- 
derstand him,  therefore,  you  must  trace  the  progressive  or 
reactionary  system  which  either  developed  or   controverted 


THE  KEJLATION  OF  PHILOSOPHY  TO  THEOLOGY.  49 

his;  and  in  fact  you  cannot  master  one  great  philosophical 
thinker  without  a  knowledge  of  the  systems    of  the  whole  past. 

This,  of  course,  in  the  case  of  one  who  does  not  devote 
his  whole  life  to  it,  is  not  to  be  accomplished  by  actual  perusal 
ot  the  works  of  these  men.  Its  practical  benefits  can  be  largely 
secured  by  good  histories  of  philosophy.  Many  of  the  best 
systems  also  have  large  notices  of  the  history  of  the  various 
points.  Sir  William  Hamilton's  Lectures  are  more  valuable 
for  their  historic  notices  than  as  the  development  of  a  complete 
system.     Dr.  Porter's  work  is  rich  in  historical  notices. 

Philosophy  is  to  be  valued,  but  is  not  to  be  overvalued. 
Philosophy  can  invent  nothing.  As  natural  philosophy  cannot 
make  a  species  of  plants,  or  really  generate  a  gas,  so  cannot 
philosophy  proper  do  more  than  discover  what  is;  and  even 
here  its  sphere,  grand  though  it  be  among  human  sciences, 
is  narrow  and  humble  as  compared  with  that  of  theology.  Lu- 
ther called  reason,  by  which  he  meant  what  is  often  called 
philosophy,  the  old  woman  who  makes  weather,  the  mother  of 
vapors.  But  the  o]d  woman  cannot  make  weather  or  vapors; 
she  can  only  watch  them,  and  venture  at  times  upon  a  prophecy, 
which  is  very  apt  not  to  be  fulfilled.  Philosophy  cannot  open 
to  us  the  way  to  the  heart  of  God,  nor  to  the  home  of  the 
redeemed.  It  cannot  justify  nor  sanctify  nor  save.  After  the 
struggles  of  ages  and  the  glorious  triumph  of  the  philosophic 
mind,  the  sentence  of  Mirandula  still  retains  its  force:  "Philo- 
sophy seeks  the  truth;  Theology  finds  it;  Religion  appropri- 
ates it." 

SECTION    XXIX. 

THE  DIFFERENT    SYSTEMS    OF    PHILOSOPHY    AS    RELATED 
TO    THEOLOGY. 

The  diversity  of  philosophical  systems  need  not  mislead 
us.  Theology  is  able  to  make  some  use  of  all  systems.  It  can 
apply  to  its  own  ends  every  philosophical  system  which  ac- 
knowledges the  essential  distinction  between  God  and  the 
world,  spirit  and  matter,  freedom  and  necessity.  But  it  can 
also  find  a  soul  of  good  in  things  evil,  and  knows  how  to  ex- 


50  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

tract  benefits  even  from  the  systems  of  error:  first,  because 
great  errors  are  often  mingled  with  great  truths;  secondly, 
because  error  itself  is  instructive  as  a  disease  of  the  mind ;  and 
thirdly,  because  the  error  may  be  associated  with  an  ability  in 
the  handling  which  may  be  useful  to  us  in  the  defence  of  truth. 

The  diversities  of  systems  should  no  more  make  us  indif- 
ferent to  the  question  which  is  the  true  one,  than  the  multipli- 
city of  religious  creeds  should  make  us  careless  in  the  forma- 
tion of  our  faith.  There  is  one  absolutely  true  philosophy,  as 
there  is  one  absolutely  true  religion.  The  true  philosophy  is 
yet  in  process  of  discovery,  as  in  a  certain  sense  the  true  re- 
ligion is  in  a  course  of  ampler  development  in  the  Christian 
consciousness  and  confession. 

But  there  is  one  great  difference  between  the  two.  Philo- 
sophy is  advanced  by  the  unaided  powers  of  the  human  in- 
tellect. Religion  is  set  forth  in  its  absolute  perfection  in  the 
Word  of  God,  and  is  reached  by  the  Church  under  the  super- 
natural aid  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Hence,  while  there  may  be  a 
genuine  eclecticism  in  philosophy,  there  can  be  none  among 
theological  systems.  There  must  be  on  earth  one  part  of  the 
Christian  Church  at  least,  fellowship  in  which  involves  no  asso- 
ciation with  doctrinal  error.  Those  who  imagine  that  the  pure 
doctrine  exists  nowhere,  as  a  whole,  but  is  found  in  fragments, 
in  all  denominations,  mixed  with  errors,  imagine  that  no  man 
can  be  in  any  part  of  the  Church  without  ignoring  some  truth, 
or  aiding  some  error.  This  is  to  concede  that  the  gates  of 
hell  have  prevailed  against  the  Church. 

The  affectation  of  entire  independence  of  the  various 
schools  of  philosophy  is  a  very  weak  one.  A  man  must  go 
either  with  existing  systems,  or  vindicate  his  right  to  ignore 
them  all  by  making  a  system  of  his  own  superior  to  all. 

Speculation  may  be  allowed  a  wide  range,  so  long  as  it 
does  not  endanger /az^/i;  and  we  must  not  be  too  much  in  a 
hurry  to  imagine  that  faith  is  going  to  be  hurt.  It  has  a  much 
more  robust  constitution  than  many  of  its  friends  are  willing 
to  credit  it  with. 


THE  RELATION  OF  PHILOSOPHY  TO  THEOLOGY.  51 

One  of  the  great  errors  in  the  philosophy  of  our  time  is 
the  tendency  to  materiaHsm.  It  makes  the  testimony  of  the 
senses  supreme.  It  does  away  with  the  idea  of  God,  of  spirit, 
and  of  moral  freedom. 

But  there  has  also  been  in  philosophy  an  exactly  opposite 
tendency — that  of  a  false  spiritualism,  or  idealism,  which  holds 
God  and  spirit,  or  spirit  without  God,  or  intellectual  phenome- 
na without  spirit  or  substance,  to  be  the  only  reality;  denies 
that  the  world  of  matter  has  real  being ;  and  so  far  as  it 
teaches  freedom  at  all,  teaches  an  unlimited,  absolute  liberty, 
in  which  the  ego,  the  personal  thinker,  or  the  thought  which 
involves  no  thinker,  is  deified. 

A  god  without  a  world  is  not  the  God  of  Christianity. 
Christ  was  no  materialist  nor  idealist.  A  spirit  which  has  no 
flesh  to  triumph  over  is  not  the  spirit  of  Christianity.  A  free- 
dom which  has  no  sense  of  responsibihty  to  God,  no  feehng 
of  dependence  on  Him,  is  not  the  freedom  of  His  children. 
The  Bible  everywhere  sets  forth  a  parallelism  of  God  and  the 
world,  of  heaven  and  earth,  of  matter  and  spirit,  realities  not 
only  by  the  side  of  each  other,  but  often  in  antagonism.  The 
parallelism  is  to  move  on  forever,  but  the  antagonism  is  yet  to 
be  overcome. 

Out  of  this  general  admission  of  parallelism  arise  two 
opposite  tendencies.  One  of  these  looks  upon  the  opposition 
as  fixed.  This  is  the  deistic  view.  The  second,  which  con- 
founds the  elements,  is  the  pantheistic.  The  deistic  was  the 
old  form  of  unbelief;  the  pantheistic  is  the  prevalent  one.  The 
one  is  the  error  of  a  shallow  common  sense.  The  other  is  the 
error  of  an  unquenchable  spirit  of  speculation.  Deism  is  the 
more  natural  resource  of  the  vulgar,  and  Pantheism,  of  the 
more  refined  intellect.  In  Deism,  God  and  the  world  are  not 
only  distinguished,  but  are  separated.  It  imagines  a  God  who 
has  created  the  world  and  then  leaves  it  to  itself  He  is  a 
mechanist,  not  a  Father.  Men  are  his  manufacture,  not  His 
children ;  the  universe  is  His  workshop,  not  his  home.  God 
has  no  living  relation  to  His  creatures.  Deism  regards  Him 
in  its  view  as   no  more  than  the  Establisher  of  Laws,  under 


52  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

which  henceforth  by  necessity  all  things,  and  man  as  part  of 
them,  move;  but  it  knows  nothing  of  prophecy,  of  miracles, 
of  mystery,  or  of  redemption.   It  ignores  all  proper  providence. 

Over  against  Deism  comes  the  philosophy  of  identity, 
which  fuses  and  confuses  what  Deism  had  arbitrarily  and 
mechanically  sundered.  The  one  is  the  Nestorianism  of  philo- 
sophy, the  other  its  Eutychianism.  Nestorius  separated  the 
two  natures  of  Christ,  so  as  to  make  two  persons ;  Eutyches 
intensified  the  one  personality  till  the  reality  and  distinction 
of  two  natures  vanished  before  it.  Like  the  first,  Deism  so 
distinguishes  God  and  the  world,  that  God  is  without  the  world 
and  the  world  is  without  God.  Like  the  second,  the  panthe- 
istic identity  so  blends  God  and  the  world,  that  God  is  the 
world  and  the  world  is  God,  and  there  is  neither  true  world 
nor  true  God. 

The  philosophic  tendency  of  Pantheism  has  moved  under 
two  opposite  impulses.  Under  the  first  it  merges  God  in  the 
world,  and  thus  falls  into  Materialism ;  in  the  other  it  merges 
the  world  into  God,  and  thus  becomes  Absolute  Idealism.  Over 
against  this  tendency  theology  can  only  link  itself  with  the 
philosophy  which  acknowledges  a  living,  personal  Goci.  No 
system  that  is  not  theistic  as  over  against  atheistic  or  pantheis- 
tic can  be  harmonized  with  Christianity. 

SECTION    XXX. 

THE     VARIOUS     DISCIPLINES    OR     BRANCHES    OF     PHILOSOPHY 
IN   THEIR    RELATION    TO    THEOLOGY. 

Philosophy  constitutes  a  grand  whole.  There  can  be, 
therefore,  no  arbitrary  ignoring  utterly  of  certain  parts  of  it  as 
of  no  use  to  the  theologian.  The  formal  side  of  philosophy 
— i.  e.y  logic  or  dialectics^-and  the  general  basis  of  it — i.  e., 
psychology  and  anthopology — are  of  great  value,  although  it 
is  in  the  sphere  of  ethics  as  the  philosophy  of  morals  and 
religion  that  it  comes  into  most  direct  contact  with  theology. 
In  recent  times,  in  the  Continental  training,  the  EncyclopcBdia 
of  Philosophy  has  been  made  one  of  the  subjects  of  instruction 
in  the  universities.     This  part  of  philosophical  instruction  is  of 


THE   nilLOSOPIIICAL   SCIENCES   AS   RELATED   TO  THEOLOGY.      5H 

great  importance  to  the  theologian,  as  it  gives  him  a  wide 
survey  and  general  knowledge  of  the  whole  ground,  and  puts 
him  in  the  position  for  further  and  independent  study. 

Logic  in  its  ordinary  shape  had  lost  the  esteem  in  which 
it  was  once  held.  So  great  was  the  revolution  through  which 
philosophy  had  passed,  that  everything  seemed  to  be  unset- 
tled. Men  who  were  masters  in  logic  seemed  to  be  so  erratic 
in  thinking,  that  both  their  admirers  and  their  opponents 
were  tempted,  for  opposite  reasons,  to  suspect  that  logic  had 
in  their  case  very  little  value.  But  with  returning  sobriety  of 
thought  men  have  come  again  to  see  that  without  genuine 
logic  all  philosophy  becomes  but  a  confused  world  of  dreams. 
Psychology,  in  its  latest  tendencies  has  shown  more  and 
more  a  disposition  to  link  itself  with  natural  science.  So 
far  as  this  opposes  itself  to  a  spurious  spiritualism  the  move- 
ment is  healthy ;  but  the  tendency  must  be  guarded  to  prevent 
its  running  from  one  extreme  to  another,  merging  the  spiritual 
in  the  bodily,  and  so  swinging  from  spiritualism  into  material- 
ism. The  true  philosophy  of  religion  will  always  be  dependent 
upon  a  sound  psychology,  on  a  genuine  philosophic  apprehen- 
sion of  the  nature  of  the  soul  and  of  the  different  spheres  oi 
the  soul — anthropology. 

This  brings  us  to  the  sphere  designated  of  old  as  Ontology 
or  Metaphysics.  These  terms  have  been  exchanged  for  others, 
but  in  substance  they  still  iorm  the  object  of  what  is  called 
speculative  philosophy.  If  we  accept  the  old  Platonic- Aristo- 
telian division  of  philosophy  into  physics,  ethics,  and  dialectics, 
we  have  something  analogous  to  the  disciplines  mentioned  as 
propedeutic  and  boethetic.  Philosophy  and  mathematics  cor- 
respond with  logic,  the  natural  sciences  with  physics,  history 
with  ethics. 

As  we  associate  the  arts  with  the  sciences,  the  philosophy  of 
the  \y^2M\\{w\,yEsthetics  or  philosophy  of  art—  presents  itself  with 
claims  upon  our  notice.  The  position  of  these  departments 
of  philosophy  to  the  professional  studies  is  clear  in  the  nature 
of  the  case.  Natural  philosophy  is  the  foundation  of  medicine ; 
the  philosophy  of  law  of  the  legal   profession ;  and  the  philo- 


54  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

sophy  of  religion  and  moral  philosophy  are  the  basis  of  theo 
logical  study.     All  these    branches,  however,    are  useful  to  a 
theologian;  but  especially  is  the  philosophy  of  art  to  be  recom- 
mended, on  the  general  ground  of  the  desirableness  of  a  culti- 
vated sense  of  the  beautiful  in  the  theologian. 

Finally,  the  history  of  philosophy  is  a  necessary  condition 
to  the  study  of  philosophy  itself;  but  its  value  as  an  auxiliary 
is  more  naturally  estimated  at  its  place  in  the  history  of 
religion,  of  the  Church,  and  of  doctrine. 


SELECT    LITERATURE. 

OF  THE 

PHILOSOPHICAL  SCIENCES. 

1.      ENCYCLOPAEDIA  OF  THE  PHILOSOPHICAL    SCIENCES. 

1.  Beck,  Jos.    Philosophische  Pmpwdeutik.    r2th  ed.,  1876. 

2.  Krauth-Fleniing.  A  Vocabulary  of  the  PMlosopMcal  Sciences. 
New  York,  1881. 

This  work,  though  not  an  Encyclopaedia,  properly  belongs  here. 
It  contains  two  important  works,  1)  A  Vocabulary  of  Philoso- 
phy by  Prot.  William  Fleming,  D.  D.,  and  2)  A  Vocabulary  of 
the  Philosojjhicai  ^Sciences  by  Prof.  Charles  P.  Krauth,  tt.  T.  D., 

LL.  D.  To  the  student  of  philosophy  no  better  guide  can  be 
given. 

3.  Ritter,  H.  Encykl.  d.  phil.  Wissenschaften.  3  vols.  Gottingen, 
1862—64. 

4.  Rosenkranz,   K.  System  der  Wissenschaften,  Konigsberg,  1850. 

2.      PSYCHOLOGY. 

1.  Bascom,  John.  Principles  of  Psychology.  New  York. 

2.  Beneke,  F.  E.  Lehrbuch  der  Psychologie  als  Naturwissenschaft. 
Berlin,  3rd  ed.,  l861.  English  Translation  of  this  edition  by  G. 
Raue,  London,  1871,  under  the  title  of  Elements  of  Psychology. 

3.  Day,  H.  N.  Psychology.  New  York. 

4.  Erdmann,  J.  E.  Grundriss  der  Psychologie.  4th  ed.,  1862. 

5.  Haven,  Joseph.    Mental  Philosophy.  Boston. 

6.  Hickok,  L.  P.  Empirical  Psychology.  New  York. 
- Rational  Psychology.  New  York. 

7.  Mahan,  Asa.  System  of  Mental  Philosophy.  Chicago. 

8.  Porter,  Noah.    The  Human  Intellect,  l^ew  York. 

9.  Ulrici,  Hermann.  Gott  und  der  Mensch.  Vol.  I.  Leib  und 
Seele.  Leipsic,  1866.  Part  1  of  this  remarkable  work   under  the 

special  title  of  "Body  and  Soul",  contains  the  author's  Outlines  of 
Human  Psychology. 


SELECT   LITERATURE  OF  THE  PHILOSOPHTOAL   SCIENCES.      55 
3.      LOGIC. 

1.  Bowen,  Francis.    Treatise  on  Logic.  Cambridge,  1864. 

2.  Davis,  Noah  K.  TJie  Theory  ofThovA/M.  A  Treatise  on  Deductic 
Logic.   New  York,  1^80. 

3.  De  Morgan,  Augustus.  Formal  Login,  or  the  Calculus  of  Infer- 
ence, Necessary  and  Probable.  1847. 

4.  H3.m\\ton,^[r' ^VilVuxm.  Lecticres  on  Logic.    Edited  by  Mansel 
and  Veitch.     l^oston,  1868. 

5.  Jevons,  W.  Stanley.    Elementary  Lemms  in  Logic :  Deductive 
and  Inductive.    New  York  and  London. 
.Studies  in  Deductive  L^ogic. 

6.  Mill,  J.  S.  ♦  System  of  Logic,  Ratiocinative  and  Inductive.  New 
York. 

7.  Thomson,   AVilliam.    An    Outline    of  the  Necessary  Laws  of 
Thought.  New  York  and  London. 

8.  Ueberweg,  Friedrich.  System  of  Logic  and  History  of  Logical 
Doctrines.    Translated  from  the  German.  London,  1871. 

9     Ulrici,  Hermann.    Compendium,  der  Jjogik.    Leipsic,  2nd  ed., 
1872. 

10.  Whately,  Richard.  Elements  of  Ljogic. 

11.  Wilson,  W.  D.  Elementary  Treatise  on  Logic.    New  York. 

4.        ESTHETICS. 

1.  Bascom,  John.  Esthetics,  or  Science  of  Beauty.  New  York. 

2.  Day,  H.  N.  Principles  of  ^Esthetics.  New  York. 

3.  Kames,  Lord  (Henry  Home).  Elements  of  Art  Criticism.  New 
York. 

4.  Ruskin,  John.  Modern  Painters.    Five  volumes  in  two.    New 
York,  1884. 

5.  Samson,  G.  W.  Elements  of  Art  Criticism,.    Philadelphia. 

6.  Yischer,  F.  T.  Msthetik,  oder  die  Wissenschaft  des  Schoenen. 

7.  Zimm.eTm3.m\'s  Geschichte  der  JEsthetik.    Vienna,  1858. 

5.      MORAL  PHILOSOPHY    OK  ETHICS. 

1.  Alexander,  Archibald.     Outlines  of  Moral  Science,  l^ew  Y'ork. 

2.  Bascom,  John.  Principles  of  Ethics.  New  York. 

3.  Calder wood,  Henry.    Handbook  of  Moral  Philosophy.  1872. 

4.  Day,  H.  N.  Science  of  Ethics.  New  York. 

5.  Fleming,  William.    Manual  of  Moral  Philosophy.  London. 

6.  Haven,  Joseph.     Moral  Philosophy.  Boston. 

7.  Hickok,  L.   F.  A  System  of  Moral  Science.     Revised  by   Presi- 
dent Seelye.  Boston. 

8.  Hopkins,   Mark.    The  Tjaw  of  Love  and  Love  as  a  La?v,  or 
Christian  Ethics.  New^  York. 

9.  Kant,  Immanuel.  Critique  of  the  Practical  Reason.  London. 

10.  Porter,  Noah.    The  Elemeiits  of  Moral  Science.  New  York, 
1885. 


66  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

B.       METAPHYSICS. 

1.  Bowen,  Francis.  Modern  Philosophy,  from  Descartes  to 
Schopenhauer  and  Hartmann.  New  York. 

2.  Day,  H.  X.  Onto]o(/y.    New  York. 

8.  Hamilton,  Sir  William.  JIeta2)?iyslcs.  Edited  by  Mansel  and 
Veitch.  Boston. 

4.  Kraiith,  Charles  P.  Berkeley's  Principles  of  Human  Knom- 
ledge,  with  Prolegomena  and  Annotations.  Philadelphia. 

5.  McCosh,  James.    The  Intuitions  of  the  Mind.    New  York. 

H.  Kant,  Immanuel.  Critique  of  Pure  Reason.  New  York  and 
London. 

7.  Lotze,  R.  H.  Metaphysih.  Leipsic.  Outlines  of  Metajihysics. 
Dictated  Portions  of  the  Lectures  of  Hermann  Lotze,  translated 
and  edited  by  Prof.  Georg^e  T.  Ladd.  Boston. 

7.    PHILOSOPHY  OF  rp:ligion. 

1.  Bascom,  John.    Philosophy  of  Religion.  New  York. 

2.  Caird,  John.  An  Introduction  to  the  Philosophy  of  Religion. 
New  York. 

8.  Kant,  Immanuel.  Religion  urithiii  the  Limits  of  Mere  Reason. 
London. 

4.  Pascal,  Blaise.  Thoughts.    New  York  1859. 

5.  Ulrici,  Hermann.     6^ofi rmd  die  iVa^wr.  Leipsic,  1866. 

8.      PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN   RELIGION. 

1.  Bushnell,  Horace.  Nature  and  the  iSupernatural.  New  York. 

2.  Butler,  Joseph.  The  Analogy  of  Religion. 

3.  Calderwood,  Henry.    Philosophy  of  the  Infinite.  London,  1872. 

4.  Haven,  Joseph.  Studies  in  Philosophy  and  Theology.  Andover. 

5.  Hickok,  Laurens  P.    Rational  Cosmology.  New  York,  1871. 

9.      THEODICY    AND  NATT^RAL    THEOLOGY. 

1.  Argyll,  The  Duke  of.  The  Reign  of  Latv.  1884. 

2.  Bampton  Lectures,  The. 

:i  Blackie,  Jo  hn  Stuart.  The  Natural  History  of  Atheism.  New 
York,  1882. 

4.  Bledsoe,  A.  T.  A  Theodicy.  New  York,  1858. 

5.  Bridgewater  Treaties,  The. 

6.  Candlish,  Robert  S.  Reason  and  Revelation.  London. 

7.  Christlieb,  Theo.  Modern  Doubt  and  Christian  Belief.  New 
York. 

8.  Diman,  J.  Lewis.  The  Thrlstic  Argument,  as  affected  by  Recent 
Theories.     Boston. 

9.  Drummond,  Henry.  Natural  Lam  in  the  i:ipiritual  World. 
New  York,  1884. 

10.  Fisher,  G.  P.  Grounds  ofTheistic  and  Christian  Belief.  New 
York,  1883. 

11.  Flint,  Robert.    Anti-Tlieistic  Theories,  Edinburgh  and  London. 


PREDOMINANT   THEOLOGICAL   TENDENCIES.  57 

12.  Harris,  Samuel.  The  FliilosopMcal  Basis  of  Theism.  NewYork. 

13.  Hickok,  Laurens  P.    Creation  and  Creato7\  Boston. 

14.  Janet,  Paul.    Final  Causes.  Edinburgh. 

15.  Liefchild,  John  E.  The  Higher  Ministry  of  Nature.  London 
and  New  York. 

16.  Mahan,  Asa.    The  Science  of  Natural  Theology.  Boston. 

17.  Mc  Cosh,  James.  The  Method  of  Divine  Oomryiment.  NewYork, 

18.  Young,  John.    The  Province  of  Reason.    New  York. 

10.      HISTORY   OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

1.  Erdmann,  J.  E.  Qrundriss  der  Geschichte  der  Philosophie.  2 
vols.  Berlin. 

Better  adapted  to  complete  than  to  begin  the  study  of  the 
History  of  Philosophy. 

2.  Schwegler,  Albert.  A  Handbook  of  the  History  of  Philosophy, 
translated  by  Seelye.  New  York. 

Translated  and  annotated  by  Stirling.  Edinburgh. 
For  the  beginner  the  best  work  published. 

3.  Tennemann,  W.  T.  Manual  of  the  History  of  Philosophy. 
Edited  by  Morell.  London,  1852. 

4.  Ueberweg,  Friedrich.  A  History  of  Philosophy.  Translated 
by  Morris,  with  additions  by  Noah  Porter.  2  vols.  New  York. 
The  standard  work,  especially  valuable  on  account  of  the 
Literature  cited. 

SECTION  XXXI. 

PREDOMINANT   THEOLOGICAL    TENDENCIES. 

Closely  connected  with  the  relation  of  philosophy  to  theo- 
logy, yet  not  dependent  on  it  alone,  is  our  judgment  of  the 
different  theological  tendencies,  and  of  the  position  we  should 
take  to  them.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  at  this  point  to  exhibit 
the  character  of  these  tendencies  as  they  make  themselves  felt 
through  every  department  of  theology,  although  a  complete 
understanding  of  them,  and  the  most  matured  and  intelligent 
decision  in  regard  to  them,  is  only  possible  when  theological 
study  itself  has  been  carried  out  with  great  thoroughness. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  be  entirely  fair  with  what  he 
proposes ;  to  let  his  pupils  see  it  in  all  its  real  strength.  No  man 
knows- the  weakness  of  a  strong  system  who  does  not  do  justice 
to  its  strength,  and  no  man  understands  the  full  strength  of  the 
views  he  advocates  till  he  apprehends  wherein  they  are,  or 
seem  to  be,  weak. 


58  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The  instructor  is  not  to  think  for  the  learner,  but  to  aid 
him  in  honest  investigation,  that  he  may  think  for  himself  And, 
even  in  furnishing  materials  of  strength,  he  is  to  warn  the  pupil 
against  the  idea,  that  having  the  material  of  thinking  is  think- 
ing itself. 

SECTION  XXXII. 

THE    RELIGIOUS    AND  SCIENTIFIC  TENDENCY  IN    THEOLOGY.*) 

It  may  be  said  in  general  that  in  theology  there  have  exis- 
ted from  the  beginning,  and  now  exist  and  will  probably  exist 
forever,  two  mighty  and  inevitable  tendencies  which  are  dis- 
tinct, yet  not  necessarily  divided.  One  tendency  may  be 
called  the  religious,  the  other  the  scientific.  One  is  internal,  the 
other  is  affected  by  external  influences  ;  one  may  be  called 
historical,  the  other  ideal.  Now  as  one  of  these  tendencies  in- 
fluences the  other,  healthfully  or  unhealthfully  we  have  a  desir- 
able or  undesirable  result.  When  one  is  out  of  due  proportion 
to  the  other,  or  seeks  to  repress  it,  we  have  sometimes  Ratio- 
nalism, Mysticism,  Pietism,  Idealism,  or  Fanaticism. 

That  these  two  tendencies  are  both,  in  their  proper  nature 
and  Hmitation,  healthy  and  promotive  of  each  other's  highest 
ends,  is  clear  from  the  fact  that  they  existed  in  the  earliest 
Church,  often  in  unison ;  and  only  when  they  were  exaggerated 
or  one-sided  did  they  come  into  conflict.  The  oldest  heresies 
arise  largely  from  the  abuse  of  one  or  other  tendency.  Within 
the  ancient  Church  Catholic  the  antithesis  often  repeats  itself 
Irensus  id.  202)  and  TertuUian  {d.  220)  represent  one  side, 
Clement  id.  220)  and  Origen  {d.  254)  the  other.  Arianism  and 
Nestorianism  are  anticipations  of  Rationalism.  Pelagius  rises 
up  to  represent  the  scientific  as  arrayed  against  the  religious, 
and  is  met  by  Augustine  {d.  430),  who  represents  the  religious 
as  vitalizing  and  sanctifying  science.  He  was  incomparably 
more  scientific  and  more  religious  than  Pelagius. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  we  see  the  same  illustrations  of  anti- 
thesis in  the  conflicts  in  regard  to  the  Lord's  Supper  and 
other  doctrines.     Among   the   scholastics,  we  find  an  Abelard 


•    See  Manuscript  Lectures  of  Dr.  Krauth. 


THE  RELIGIOUS  AND  SCIENTIFIC  TENDENCY   IN  THEOLOGY.  59 

{d.  1142),  the  brilliant  nuisance  of  his  era,  representing  the  ra- 
tionalizing, if  not  rationalistic,  tendency;  and  opposed  to  him 
and  it  we  have  the  glorious  name  of  Anselm  of  Canterbury 
(d:  1109),  and  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  (^.  1153).  The  mystics 
sought  to  give  internal  depth  and  life  to  the  Church  doctrine, 
but  in  their  hands  the  positiveness  of  a  well-defined  faith  often 
vanished  in  a  vague  idealism,  and  they  commuted  history  into 
symbol  and  allegory. 

In  the  Reformation  the  two  tendencies  appeared.  Luther 
was  the  mighty  opponent  of  rationalism,  in  the  one  extreme, 
as  he  was  of  a  spurious  supranaturalism  in  the  other.  He  har- 
monized the  two  tendencies — the  religious  and  scientific — and 
it  was  this  which  made  him  so  absolutely  great  as  a  leader. 

Zivingli  more  than  any  other  reformer  may  be  considered 
as  the  forerunner  of  rationalism.  He  was  no  thinker,  but  was 
essentially  a  man  of  activity.  His  sphere  was  more  naturally 
in  political  life  than  in  theology.  He  was  fitted  rather  to  be 
the  leader  of  a  revolution  than  of  a  reformation.  In  Calvin  the 
Zwinglian  tendency,  rationalistic  and  radical,  was  checked,  but 
not  removed;  and  hence  in  the  Zwinglian-Calvinistic  Church 
arose  Socinianism,  which  is  rationalism  systematized,  and 
Arminianism,  which  is  but  rationalism  not  yet  fully  developed 
into  consistency.  The  influence  of  English  deism  was  felt  in 
the  eighteenth  century  in  theology.  The  apologists  of  Christi- 
anity of  that  era  too  often  defended  it  from  a  latitudinarian 
ground,  which  made  that  defense  in  some  respects  more  mis- 
chievous than  the  assault,  inasmuch  as  the  admission  of  a  friend 
carries  more  weight  than  the  assertion  of  a  foe.  There  arose 
on  the  continent  a  system  of  natural  religion,  or  rationalistic 
theology,  which  planted  itself  by  the  side  of  positive  BibHcal 
churchly  theology,  as  in  fact,  though  not  at  first  in  form,  a 
rival  to  it. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  philosophy  of  Kant  and  the 
spirit  of  the  times,  the  rationalistic  tendency  grew  stronger 
and  stron  ger.  Over  against  Rationalism  at  this  era  stood,  for 
the  most  part  Supranaturalism  which,  while  as  opposed  to 
Rationalism  contended  for  much  peculiar  to  the  old  faith  of  the 


60  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Church,  shared  also  in  the  infection  of  the  time  and  abandoned 
much. 

In  the  more  recent  conflicts  Pietism  has  largely  taken  the 
place  of  the  older  Supranaturalism.  The  name  Pietism  comes 
to  us  from  the  time  of  Spener  and  Francke.  The  living  piety 
of  these  early  men,  who.-^e  fervor  was  tempered  with  sobriety, 
was  not  reproduced  in  the  mass  of  their  followers.  Pietism 
ran  out  into  a  pretentious  Formalism — the  Formalism  of 
Pseudo-spiritualism,  and  finally  became  a  Pharisaism  with  a 
thin  robe  of  Christianism. 

It  is  evident  that,  even  at  its  best  estate,  Pietism  lacked 
certain  elements  of  the  highest  form  of  Lutheran  Christianity. 
In  Spener,  as  compared  with  Lulher,  there  was  a  certain  dry- 
ness and  prosiness  of  mind.  He  lacked  the  large  temperament, 
that  harmony,  proportion  and  depth  of  character  which  appear 
in  Luther. 

As  compared  with  Melanchthon  and  Chemnitz,  Spener  was 
destitute  of  clearness  of  thinking,  of  order  and  harmony  in 
conception,  of  purity  and  simplicity  of  style. 

The  best  Pietism  has  all  the  features  of  Christianity,  but 
some  of  them  are  exaggerated,  and  some  are  pinched. 

The  Reformation  was  full  of  the  spirit  of  piety,  but  it  had 
no  Pietism.  Pietism,  in  its  best  shape  is  a  pure  Christianity  in 
a  feeble  and  feverish  state  of  health,  lacking  force,  freshness, 
and  largeness. 

Mysticism  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  Pietism.  In  its 
purest  form  it  is  as  old  as  the  Church.  Its  spirit  is  that  of  di- 
rect communion  with  God ;  its  abuse  is  a  tendency  to  sink  into 
Quietism. 

To  the  purest  and  best  Mysticism,  the  secret  of  God  is  re- 
vealed. It  makes  religion  the  intercourse,  silent  but  deep,  be- 
tween the  soul  and  God,  the  source  of  all  its  life  and  light. 

The  clearest  thinkers  have  often  been  the  deepest  mystics. 
Gerhard's  Loci,  for  example,  show  him  to  have  been  clear 
beyond  even  most  of  the  great  theological  thinkers,  while  his 
Meditations  show  him  to  have  been  a  true  mystic. 


ATTITUDE   OF   STUDP:NT   TOWARDS   THESE  TENDENCIES.      61 

In  philosophy  the  better  school  of  Mysticism  is  represented 
by  a  Pascal  id.  1662)  and  a  Malebranche  {d.  17 15),  two  of  the 
greatest  names  in  the  annals  of  human  thought. 

Tiie  deepest  and  most  abiding  movement  of  the  theology 
of  our  day  is  that  of  Churclily  Posilivism,  that  of  renewed 
fidelity  to  the  truth  of  the  Word  as  the  Church  confesses  it. 
The  pure  doctrinal  life  of  our  Church  has  lifted  itself  out  of  the 
chaos  of  Rationalism  and  false  philosophy  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  as  it  lifted  itself  out  of  the  chaos  of  Romish  supersti- 
tion in  the  Sixteenth.  So  far  as  we  are  aware,  there  is  not  a 
theologian  on  the  Continent  of  the  highest  order  who  holds 
the  old  Calvinistic  system  in  its  integrity  as  a  system  of  faith, 
nor  even  as  a  mode  of  thinking.  In  our  country  Calvinism 
lingers  as  a  mode  of  thinking,  though  it  has  died  as  a  system 
of  faith. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  said  of  Lutheranism  that  it 
was  never  held  more  purely,  intelligently  and  fervently  than  it 
is  at  this  hour  by  millions  in  Christendom,  and  among  these 
are  many  of  the  princes  of  theology. 

Every  other  system  seems  to  bear  the  marks  of  decadence. 
No  other  appears  able  to  vindicate  itself  alike  by  an  appeal  to 
the  Word  of  God  and  to  the  highest  science  of  the  day. 

The  grand  conflict  of  the  time  is  among  the  three  tendencies 
— i)  the  purely  positive  tendency  of  a  fixed  Faith,  2)  the 
Nihilism  of  the  various  forms  of  unb^^ief,  and  3)  the  unionistic 
Eclecticism  and  indeterminateness.  The  last  of  the  three 
has  the  advantage  of  plausibleness.  But  the  clear  logic  of  the 
matter  lies  between  the  first  and  the  second  tendency.  The 
decision,  which  will  have  to  be  made,  is  between  a  consistent 
thorough-going  faith  on  the  one  hand,  and  a  fixed  un- 
belief on  the  other.  Between  the  two  Unionism  must  ultimately 
be  ground  to  powder. 

SECTION   XXXIil. 

THE     ATTITUDE     OF    THE    STUDENT    TOWARDS     THESE 
TENDENCIES. 

The  student  must  of  necessity  understand  all  these  tenden- 
cies.    If  he  be  earnest,  careful  in  investigation,   prayerful   and 


62  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

watchful  of  his  personal  piety,  he  need  have  no  fears  that  he  will 
be  swept  away  by  the  torrent  of  error  in  which  his  pursuit  of 
the  truth  will  compel  him  to  swim.  As  long  as  a  man's  heart  is 
above  the  water,  his  head  cannot  sink  under  it.  Here,  as 
everywhere,  the  promise  is  true  that  God  will  not  permit  us  to 
be  tempted  beyond  what  we  are  able  to  bear.  The  conscien- 
tious examination  which  is  given  to  the  diseases  of  thought  by 
him  who  expects  to  be  the  physician  of  souls,  is  like  that 
which  the  medical  student  gives  to  the  contagious  disorders 
which  are  brought  together  in  the  hospitals.  There  have  been 
instances  of  contagion  in  both  cases,  but  the  theological  student 
m>iy  have  a  mightier  safeguard  than  the  student  of  medicine 
can  have.  With  hearty  love  of  truth  he  has  the  great  amulet 
against,  at  least,  fatal  contagion.  One  thing  is  certain :  if  he 
cannot  bear  the  contagious  influence  of  a  mere  abstract 
knowledge  of  error  when  he  is  preparing  for  the  ministry, 
with  all  the  aids  which  Christian  sympathy  and  sanctified  learn- 
ing bring  around  him,  he  is  still  less  able  to  bear  the  contagion 
of  the  actual  surroundings  of  after  life,  where  error  is  not  the 
shadowy  phantom  of  the  mind,  but  comes  in  all  the  concreteness 
of  actual  seduction.  To  be  ignorant  here  is  not  to  be  innocent. 
Our  intellectual  life  lies  in  the  same  condition  of  toil  and  hazard 
as  our  natural  life,  and  to  be  mighty  in  the  truth,  we  must  have 
met  and  fairly  vanquished  the  false.  We  cannot  strengthen 
others  against  the  force  or  charm  of  error,  unless  we  have 
met  and  overcome  it  ourselves.  Very  different  before  God 
and  before  his  own  conscience  is  the  man  who  needlessly 
meddles  with  dangerous  books  and  dangerous  ideas,  in  the 
mere  spirit  of  curiosity  or  of  self-reliance,  and  the  man  who 
learns  evil  only  to  overcome  it  and  to  save  others  from  its 
snares.  "Prove  all  things";  and  you  can  prove  nothing  without 
understanding  it.  "Prove  all  things;  hold  fast  to  that  which 
is  good".  He  holds  fastest  to  the  good  who  has  put  evil  to 
the  proof.  That  man  has  an  armor  of  proof  who  goes  forth 
to  the  hardest  battle  with  holy  purpose. 


SELECT   LITERATURE 


OF 

RATIONALISM  AND  ALLIED  TOPICS. 

1.      IN  FAVOR  OF  RATIONALISM. 

1.  Arnold,  Matthew.    Literature  and  Dogma.    New  York. 

2.  Clarke,  James  Freeman.    Orthodoxy:    Its  Truths  and  Errors. 
Boston. 

3.  Colenso,  John  William.    The  Pentateuch  and  Book  of  Joshua, 
critically  examined.    New  York. 

4.  Essays  and  Reviews.    London,  1861. 

5.  Hedge,  Frederick  Henry.    Reason  in  Religion.    Boston. 

6.  Renan,  Ernest.    The  Life  of  Jesus.    New  York. 

7.  Rueckert,  L.  J.    Der  Rationalismus.    Leipsic. 

8.  Strauss,  David  F.    The  Old  Faith  and  the  New  Faith.    From 
the  German,    New  York. 

2.      IN  FAVOR  OF  SUPRANATURALISM. 

1.  Aids  to  Faith.    A  series    of    Theological  Essays  by  several 
writers.    New  York  and  London. 

An  able  reply  to  Essays  and  Revieios. 

2.  Cairns,  John.   Romanism  and  Rationalism,  as  opposed  to  Pure 
Christianity.    London. 

3.  Fisher,  George  P.    Faith  and  Rationalism.    New  York. 

4.  Green,  W.  H.    The  Pentateuch  mndicated  from  the  Aspersions 
of  Bishop  Colenso.    New  York. 

5.  Krauth,  Charles  P.  UlricVs  Remeto  of  ^Arauss's  ''The  Old  Faith 
and  the  New  Faith."    Philadelphia  and  Edinburgh. 

6.  Luthardt's  Allgem.  evang.  luth.    Kirchenzeitung.    Leipsic. 

7.  Schaff.  Philip.    The  Person  of  Christ;  the  Miracle  of  History, 
with  a  reply  to  Strauss  and  Renan.    Boston  and  New  York. 

A  work  that  cannot  be  too  highly  commended. 

8.  Yilmar,  A.  F.  C.    Bie  Theologie  der  Thatsachen  wider   die 
Theologie  der  Rhetorik.    Guetersloh,  1876. 

9.  Young,  John.    The  Christ  of  History.  New  York  and  London. 

3.     WORKS  ON  MYSTICISM  AND  PIETISM. 

1.  Bigelow,  John.    3Iolinos  the  Quietist.    New  York. 

2.  Dorner,  J.  A.    Ber  Pietismus,  insbes.  in   Wuertemhurg.    Ham- 
burg, 1846. 

3.  Goerres,  J.  Bie  Christliche  Mystik.  4  vols.  Regensburg,  1836—42. 

4.  Heppe,  H.    Oeschichte  des  Pietisnfius  und  der  Mystik  in  der  re- 
form. Kirche.    Leyden,  1879. 

5.  Schmid,  H.    Geschichte  des  Pietismus.    Nordlingen,  1863. 

6.  Yaughan,  Robert  A.    Hours  with  the  Mystics.  2  vols.  London. 


64  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

4.     HISTORY  OF  RATIONALISM. 

1.  Cairns,  John.    Unbelief  in  the  EigJiteenth  Century.  New  York. 

2.  Farrar,  A.  S.  A  Critical  History  of  Free  Thought.  New  York 
and  London. 

3.  Frank,  G.  Geschiehte  des  Ration,  und  seiner  Oegensdtze. 
Leipsic,  1875. 

4.  Hagenbach,  K.  R.  German  Rationalism.  Its  rise,  progress 
and  decline.    From  the  German.    Edinburgh,  1865. 

5.  Hurst,  John  F.    History  of  Rationalism.    New  York. 

An  excellent  worli;  the  best  for  the  beginner. 

6.  Lecky,  W.  E.  H.  History  of  the  Rise  and  Influence  of  the  Spirit 
of  Rationalism  in  Europe.    2  vols.    New  York. 

7.  Tulloch,  John.  Rational  Theology  and  Christian  Philosophy 
in  England  in  the  Seventeenth  Century.  2  vols.  Edinburgh  and 
London. 


PART    II. 

THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPAEDIA,  SPECIAL  PART. 

The  Departments  of  Theologry  and  their  Mutual  Relations. 

SECTION  XXXIV. 

THE  DIVISIONS    OF    THEOLOGY. 

Positive  theology  by  its  own  nature  divides  itself  into  four 
main  departments: 

/)  Exegetical,  2)  Historical,  3)  Systematic  and  4)  Pract- 
ical. This  according  to  Hagenbach  is  the  proper  division  and 
proper  succession  of  parts.  There  can  be  no  serious  dispute 
on  the  general  correctness  of  this  division,  though  there  may 
be  some  in  regard  to  the  order  of  succession. 

Exegetical  theoloo^y  corresponds  to  philology,  Historical  to  his- 
tory, Systematic  to  philosophy,  and  Practical  to  art.  Individual 
qualifications  often  lead  to  distinct  results,  so  that  the  student  who 
excels  in  the  study  of  lan^uaj^es  usually  becomes  a  good  exegete, 
and  he  who  has  the  historical  faculty  becomes  a  Church  historian. 
Philosophical  ability  will  find  its  proper  field  in  systematic  theolo- 
gy,  and  a  talent  for  using  the  vernacular  in  artistic  description,  etc., 
indicates  the  coming  preacher  and  liturgist. 

The  student  must  begin  with  Exegesis  and  first  of  all  become 
acquainted  with  the  Bible.  Not  until  the  mind  has  developed  its 
powers  by  historical  studies,  and  has  acquired  facility  in  the  broad 
philosophical  management  of  thought,  will  it  be  fitted  to  attempt 
the  study  of  Dogmatics. 

Every  division,  however,  is  only  relative,  for  in  every  single  de- 
partment of  theological  study  all  the  others  are  involved.  Exeget- 
ical theology  involves  historical  elements  (Introduction,  Archaeolo- 
gy), as  well  as  doctrinal  (Criticism,  Hermeneutics)  and  practical 
(Practical  Exposition).  The  same  is  true  of  the  other  departments; 
in  fact  it  would  not  be  difficult  to  distinguish  1)  exegetical,  2) 
historical,  3)  systematic,  and  4)  practical  elements  in  each  of  the 
four  main  departments.  Each  takes  the  hand  of  the  other,  and  af- 
fords an  outlook  into  the  other. 

In  the  arrangement  of  Theological  Literature,  or  of  a  theolo- 
gical library,  it  is  usual  to  place  as  a  General  Introduction  to  Exe- 
getical Theology,  1)  all  books  pertaining  to  Encyclopaedia  of  The- 
ology, and  Theological  Bibliography,  as  well  as  2)  all  collected 
worlds  of  several  or  single  authors,  embracing  the  several  Depart- 
ments of  Theology. 


66  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

I.     EXEGETICAL  THEOLOGY. 

SECTION   XXXV. 

DEFINITION    OF    EXEGETICAL    THEOLOGY. 

Exegetical  Theology  comprises  all  that  relates  to  the 
exposition  and  elucidation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  It  conse- 
quently embraces  Exegesis  as  an  art,  and  all  the  branches  of 
knowledge  auxiliary  to  that  art.  Its  results  are  presented  in 
Biblical  Theology,  which  is  divided  according  to  its  historical 
and  dogmatical  elements,  into  Biblical  History  and  Biblical 
Doctrine. 

SECTION  XXXVI. 

OF    THE    HOLY   SCRIPTURES  AS  THE  OBJECT  OF  EXEGESIS. 

The  Bible  is  a  collection  of  original  or  primary  documents, 
either  of  a  directly  religious  character,  or  pertaining  to  a  his- 
tory of  religion.  It  was  written  in  various  ages  and  by  various 
authors,  mainly,  but  not  exclusively,  in  Palestine.  Considered 
as  a  whole  it  is  bound  in  unity  under  the  loftier  idea  of  the 
Word  of  God.  In  it  history  and  doctrine  are  related  as  in  no 
other  book.  It  has  as  its  aim,  the  teaching  of  one  rehgion,  the 
founding  of  one  Church.  It  is  the  source  of  Christian  faith  and 
of  Christian  life.  This  collection  forms  the  Biblical  Canon,  as 
distinguished  especially  from  the  Apocrypha  (the  claim  of 
whose  canonicity  is  spurious)  and  as  distinguished  in  general 
also  from  all  human  writings.  The  Bible  is  absolutely  divine 
in  its  spirit,  yet  truly  human  in  its  body.  In  it  the  Holy  Spirit 
is,  as  it  were,  incarnate,  as  in  Christ  Jesus,  the  Son  of  God  is 
incarnate.  It  is  God's  Word  mediated  through  man.  The 
structure  of  the  Bible  is  closely  analogous  to  the  structure  of 
the  Person  of  our  Lord.  Both  the  Bible  and  Christ  in 
their  divine  character  are  called  the  Word  of  God,  and  in  both 
perfect  divinity  and  perfect  humanity  are  inseparably  conjoined. 
There  is  nothing  divine  in  the  Bible,  which  is  isolated  from  true 
humanity,  and  nothing  human  in  the  Bible,  separated  from  true 
Divinity,  so  that  although  we  recognize  the  human  and  divine 
elements  as  distinct,  we  receive  them  as  inseparable.*) 


*)  See  Manuscript  Lectures  of  Dr.  Krauth. 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT   TO  THE  NEW.     67 

SECTION    XXXVII. 

THE  RELATION  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  TO  THE  NEW. 

The  Biblical  Canon  comprehends  the  books  of  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testaments  or  Covenants.  On  this  double  sense 
of  the  original  Greek  word,  Dr.  Knapp  (of  Halle)  beautifully 
says:  "We  should  read  the  Testament  not  as  a  lawyer,  who 
goes  over  it  critically,  but  as  a  child  who  inherits  under  it." 
The  original  implies  a  covenant  under  which  we  receive  after 
the  manner  of  a  testament,  a  covenant  by  a  will,  coming  into 
effect  by  a  death,  and  hence  the  expression  "New  Covenant" 
is  not  to  be  allowed  as  a  total  synonym  or  substitute  for  "New 
Testament". 

Though  to  the  Christian  Theologian,  the  New  Testament 
assumes  in  certain  respects  a  pre- eminence,  as  a  direct  source 
of  the  revelation  of  Christ,  yet  must  he  also  make  the  Old 
Testament  Scriptures  the  object  of  his  diligent  investigation. 
And  for  these  reasons:  i)  because  the  New  Testament  in  the 
conception  of  the  one  only  God,  which  lies  at  ijs  foundation, 
rests  upon  the  Old  Testament.  One  grand  Monotheism  per- 
vades both.  The  order  of  salvation,  or  the  economy  of  grace, 
which  comes  forth  in  its  clearness  in  the  New  Testament  has 
its  way  prepared  in  the  Old  Testament.  Both  reveal  one 
personal  God  in  the  same  attributes,  relations  and  general 
plans.  2)  The  verbal  peculiarities,  the  language  and  the  modes 
of  thought  found  in  the  Old  Testament,  furnish  the  only  clue  to 
the  meaning  of  the  New.  No  man  can  be  a  master  of  the  New 
Testament  without  a  deep  acquaintance  of  the  Old.  3)  The 
Old  Testament  is  rich  in  matter,  of  inexpressible  interest  and 
value,  a  value  which  grows  rather  than  diminishes  with  time. 
It  is  rich  in  instruction,  rich  in  all  that  edifies.  It  is  so  glorious 
a  book,  that  if  we  had  not  the  New  Testament,  we  might  have 
denied  that  the  Old  Testament  could  have  had  an  equal. 
4)  It  is  a  divine  Revelation.  It,  too,  is  God's  book,  and  so 
linked  with  the  New  Testament  in  evidence,  that  both  stand  or 
fall  together.  What  is  a  key  without  a  lock,  and  what  is  a  lock 
without  a  key  !*) 

*)    See  Manuscript  Lectures  of  Dr.  Krauth. 


68  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

The  Bible  can  never  be  rightly  studied  unless  the  two 
Testaments  are  comprehended  in  their  unity  and  harmony.  If 
the  Old  Testament  is  in  the  New  in  fulfilment,  the  New  is  in 
the   Old  in  promise. 

SECTION   XXXVIII. 

THE  OLD    TESTAMENT. 

The  Old  Testament  embraces  the  great  original  documents 
connected  with  the  national  and  religious  history  of  the 
Hebrew  race  down  to  a  certain  fixed  point  of  time.  The 
books  of  which  it  consists  are  ordinarily  divided  into  i) 
Historical,  2)  Prophetical,  and  3)  Poetical  books.  But  this 
division  must  not  be  urged  too  far,  for  the  Books  of  Moses 
though  historical,  contain  a  great  deal  of  poetry  and  law,  the 
prophetical  books  contain  also  history,  and  Proverbs  and 
Ecclesiastes  though  counted  among  the  poetical  books,  are 
not  poetical  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term.  Still  the  division, 
in  the  main,  holds  good.  It  expresses  the  predominant  char- 
acter of  the  books  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  popular  de- 
signation. 

The  Old  Testament  does  not  form  a  chronological  conjunction 
with  the  New.  Between  the  period  of  its  closed  Canon,  and  the 
opening  of  the  New  Testament  Canon,  the  world,  as  it  were,  lies 
fallow.  Miracles  and  revelations  cease  until  both  asrain  open  with 
unexampled  lustre  in  the  person  of  our  Lord.  To  this  intermediate 
period  belong  the  Ajjocryphal  books  oi  the  Old  Testament.  The 
best  of  these  are  more  iii  affinity  with  the  Old  Testament  times  than 
any  other  books.  There  are  in  all  fourteen  Apocryphal  books,  or 
portions  of  books,  all  but  three  of  which  were  pronounced  Canon- 
ical by  the  Church  of  Rome  at  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1546. 

As  forming  the  most  important  historical  link  between  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,  as  furnishing  evidence  of  the  interpretation 
of  the  Old  Testament  received  in  the  Jewish  Church  in  the  era  be- 
fore Christ,  as  well  as  for  their  intrinsic  beauty  and  excellence  these 
books  are  entitled  to  the  place  they  take  in  all  the  translations  of 
the  Scriptures  made  daring  the  Reformation  (even  in  the  most 
Calvinistic  ones,  all  the  versions  retain  them).  Let  the  Apocryphal 
books,  so  indicated  as  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Canonical 
Scriptures,  continue  to  stand  where  the  old  Reformers  retained 
them,  between  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  They  are  not,  how- 
ever, to  be  regarded  as  the  Word  of  God,  nor  are  any  proofs  for  any 
doctrine  of  the  faith  to  be  drawn  from  them.  In  modern  times, 
twice  has  an  agitation  been  raised  against  them,  each  time  begun 
in  England  (1825  and  1850).  Up  to  1826  they  were  printed  in  all 
Protestant  13ibles,  as  also  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
but  since  1826  this  Society  has  omitted  them,  and  the  American 
Bible  Society  has  followed  its  example. 


SCIENCES   AUXILIARY   TO   EXEGESIS.  OW 

SECTION    XXXIX. 

THE    NEW    TESTAMENT. 

The  Old  Testament  stretches  over  an  era  of  thousands  of 
years, — from  the  Creation  to  a  httle  less  than  four  hundred 
years  before  Christ.  Its  history  ranges  over  an  immense 
period  and  the  absolute  time  of  its  composition,  without  intro- 
ducing the  earliest  documents  which  Moses  may  have  used 
under  divine  guidance  in  the  composition  ot  Genesis,  is  more 
than  a  thousand  years. 

The  history  of  the  New  Testament  is  confined  to  one  gener- 
ation, and  the  composition  falls  within  one  century.  Its  great 
theme  is  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  founding  of  his  Church.  The 
Old  Testament  tells  us  how  the  many  sons  of  God  formed  one 
nation ;  the  New  Testament  tells  us  how  the  one  and  only  be- 
gotten Son  redeemed  and  established  a  Church  which  em- 
braces, or  is  to  embrace  all  nations  {Kraut/i). 

SECTION    XL 

SCIENCES    AUXILIARY    TO    EXEGESIS. 

To  Exegetical  Theology  as  necessary  aids  belong : 

1.  A  knowledge  of  the  original  languages  of  Holy  Scrip- 
tures {Sacred  Philology). 

2.  A  knowledge  of  the  sciences  which  deal  with  things  as 
over  against  words.  This  embraces  Biblical  Antiquities,  Geo- 
graphy and  Physical  Science  {Biblical  Archceology). 

3.  A  knowledge  of  the  rise  and  history  of  the  Canon  and  of 
its  parts  {Isagogics  or  Biblical  Introduction  and  Canonics). 

4.  A  knowledge  of  the  laws  in  accordance  with  which  we 
are  to  judge  the  canonicity,  genuineness,  and  authenticity  of 
an  entire  writing  as  a  whole  {^Higher  Criticisnt),  as  also  the 
laws  which  determine  the  incorruptness  or  integrity  of  the  text 
in  its  individual  parts  {Textual  Criticism).  This  is  the  Science 
of  Biblical  Criticism. 

5.  A  knowledge  of  the  rules  of  interpretation  or  the  laws  of 
exposition  {Hermeneutics). 


70  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

SECTION    XLI. 

THE    ORIGINAL    LANGUAGES    OF   THE   BIBLE. 
SACRED    PHILOLOGY. 

The  Old  Testament  was  originally  written  in  the  Hebrew 
language,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  portions,  which  were 
written  in  Chaldee  ( Dan.  2  :  4 — 7  :  28 ;  Ezra  4 :  8 — 6  :  18 ;  7 :  12 
— 26;  Jer.  10:  11). 

The  New  Testament  was  written  in  Hellenistic  Greek,  with 
the  possible,  but  by  no  means  probable,  exception  of  the  Gos- 
pel of  St.  Matthew. 

The  words  occasionally  occurring  in  the  Bible,  from  other 
languages  (Egyptian,  Persian,  Latin,  etc.),  are  not  to  be  con- 
sidered elements  of  what  we  properly  call  the  sacred  languages. 

SECTION    XLII 

THE    HEBREW    LANGUAGE. 

A  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  language  is  indispensable  to 
the  thelogian. 

1.  It  is  necessary  as  a  means  for  the  genuine  study  of  the 
Old  Testament.  There  is  perhaps  no  language  of  equal  im- 
portance whose  contents  are  more  imperfectly  reached  by 
translations  than  the  Hebrew. 

2.  It  is  likewise  indispensable  to  the  proper  exegesis  of  the 
New  Testament. 

a)  For  the  New  Testament  idiom  largely  rests  on  the  He- 
brew. It  is  a  Hebraizing  Greek.  The  Aramaic,  which  was 
probably  the  early  domestic  vernacular  of  our  Lord,  and  of 
most  of  the  New  Testament  writers,  is  closely  cognate  with  the 
Hebrew,  and  through  it  as  well  as  through  the  Old  Testament 
writings  and  the  Septuagint,  which  is  a  Hebraizing  Greek,  the 
New  Testament  receives  its  Semitic  impress.  The  New  Testa- 
ment, therefore,  to  use  Luther's  expression,  "is  full  of  the  He- 
brew mode  of  speaking." 

d)  The  citations  from  the  Old  Testament  can  only  be 
properly  understood  after  being  compared  with  the  original. 

c)  The  New  Testament  itself  is  to  some  extent,  we  know 
not  how  largely,  a  translation   of  what   was   uttered   in   the 


THE  HEBREW   LANGUAGE.  tl 

Aramaic  dialect.  It  is  quite  possible  and  indeed  highly  prob- 
able that  both  our  Lord  and  his  Apostles  used  both  languages. 
That  both  languages  were  in  general  use,  is  universally  admitted ; 
the  question,  however,  whether  our  Lord  spoke  for  the  most  part 
in  Greek,  or  in  Hebrew  (Aramaic),  is  not  so  definitely  setUed. 
Of  our  Lord  himself  it  is  expressly  stated  that  on  four  occa- 
sions he  made  use  of  the  Aramaic  :  when  he  raised  the  daugh- 
ter of  Jairus  (Mark  5:  41);  when  he  opened  the  ears  of  the 
deaf  man  (Mark  7  :  34);  when  upon  the  cross  (Mark  15  :  34); 
and  when  he  manifested  himself  to  Paul  near  Damascus  (Acts 
26:  14).  We  are  also  definitely  informed  that  St.  Paul  on  cer- 
tain occasions  spoke  in  the  Hebrew  language  (Acts    21:   40; 

22:  2). 

The  Hebrew  language  is  also  of  especial  value  to  the  phil- 
ologist as  it  is  a  prominent  member  of  the  large  family  of  lan- 
guages known  as  the  Semitic  *).  The  Semitic  languages  are  in- 
digenous to  hither  Asia,  and  confined  to  Palestine,  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  Mesopotamia,  Babylonia,  Arabia  and  Ethiopia. 


*    The  relations  of  the  dialects  may  be 

1  seen  from  the  following  table, 

which  l8 

designed  to  Include  all  Semitic  forms  of  speech  that  can  lay  claim  to  linguistic  In- 

dividuality: 

I.    NoKTu  Semitic. 

II.    South  Semitic. 

1.    Eastern.                                                 1 

,    Northern. 

a.    Babylonian.      » 

Arabic. 

6.    Assyrian.                                           2 

.   Southern. 

2.    Northern, 

a.    Sabaean,  or  Himyaritic. 

Aramaic. 

Mahrl. 

a.    East  Aramaic. 

Haklli  (Ehkili). 

aa.    Syriac  [Dlalett  of  Edessa]. 

6.    Geez,  or  Ethloplc. 

&&.    Mandean. 

aa.    Old  Geez. 

cc.    Nabathean. 

bb.    Tlgre. 

6.    West  Aramaic. 

cc.    Tlgrlna. 

<m.    Samaritan. 

dd.    Amharlc. 

hh.    Jewish  Aramaic. 

ee.    Hararl. 

[Daniel,  Ezra,  Targums,  Talmud]. 

cc.    Palmyrene. 

dd.    Egyptian  Aramaic. 

3.    Western. 

a.    Phoenician. 

Old  Phoenician. 

Late  Phoenician  [Punic]. 

6.  Hebrew. 

c.  Moabitish  and  other  Canaanitish  dia- 

lects. 

See  Article  on  Semitic  Languages  in  Schafl-Herzog's  Encyclopcedia  of  Religious 

Knowledge,  Vol.  3,  p.  2154,  b.,  by  Prof.  C.  H. 

Toy. 

72  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The  name  Hebrew  is  usually  derived  from  Eber  or  Heber, 
the  ancestor  of  Abraham  (Gen.  ID :  24,25;  14:  13).  Hebrew 
was  the  language  of  the  Jewish  people  during  the  time  ot  their 
national  independence,  and,  with  some  modification,  down  to 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (a.  d.  70).  It  has  continued  to 
be  their  sacred  language,  and  is  used  in  the  synagogue,  more 
or  less,  to  this  day,  and  by  a  few  of  them,  chiefly  the  older 
orthodox  bodies  in  Germany  and  Austria,  it  is  to  some  ext'^nt 
still  written  and  spoken. 

Everything  seems  to  indicate  that  the  Semitic  people  emi- 
grated from  a  common  centre  in  the  desert  on  the  south  of 
Babylonia,  the  Arabic  group  separating  first,  next  the  Aramaic, 
then  the  Hebrew,  while  the  Babylonian  gained  ultimately  the 
mastery  of  the  original  Akkadian  of  Babylonia,  and  the  Assyri- 
an founded  the  great  empire  on  the  Tigris.  The  book  of 
Genesis  (11:  31 ;  represents  Abram  as  going  forth  from  this 
Central  seat  of  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  at  first  northward  into 
Mesopotamia,  and  then  emigrating  to  Canaan.  The  monu- 
ments of  Ur  reveal  that  about  this  time  (b.  c.  2000),  it  was  the 
seat  of  a  great  literary  development.  Whether  Abraham 
adopted  the  language  of  the  Canaanites,  or  brought  the  He- 
brew with  him  from  the  East,  is  unimportant,^ for  the  ancient 
Assyrian  and  Babylonian  are  nearer  to  the  Hebrew  and  Phoe- 
nician than  they  are  to  the  other  Semitic  families.  Thus  the 
Hebrew  language,  as  a  dialect  of  the  Canaanites  and  closely 
related  to  the  Babylonian,  had  already  a  considerable  literary 
development  prior  to  the  entrance  of  Abram  into  the  Holy 
Land*).  Jacob  and  his  family  carried  the  Hebrew  language 
with  them  into  Egypt,  and  their  descendants  preserved  it  as 
the  medium  of  communication  among  themselves,  and  after 
their  sojourn  carried  it  back  again  to  its  original  home  in  Ca- 
naan. 


*)  See  an  excellent  presentation  of  this  subject  by  Prof.  Charles  A.  Briggs  in  his 
Biblical  Study,  pp.  46—50.  Prof  Briggs  also  discusses  some  of  the  most  prominent 
characteristics  of  the  Hebrew  language:  1)  Its  simplicity  and  naturalness.  2)  the 
striking  correspondence  of  the  language  to  the  thought,  3)  its  majesty  and  sublim- 
ity, 4)  its  richness  in  synonyms  (having  55  words  for  destroy,  60  for  break,  and  74 
tovtake,ei<i.),    5)  its  life  and  fervor,  etc. 


THE  HEBREW  LANGUAGE.  73 

The  Hebrew  language  remained  substantially  unmodified, 
either  by  accretion  from  other  languages  or  by  growth  and  de- 
velopment within  itself,  during  the  whole  period  of  its  literary 
period.  Its  literature  may  properly  be  divided  into  three 
periods : 

1 )  The  Mosaic  writings.  These  contain  archaic  and  poetic 
words  and  forms  seldom  found  elsewhere. 

2 )  The  Davidic  or  Solomonic  period,  the  golden  Age,  ex- 
tending from  Samuel  to  Hezekiah  (B.C.  1100—700).  Here 
belong  the  older  prophetic  and  poetic  writings  and  all  the 
Davidic  Psalms.  This  period  includes  the  lives  and  writings 
of  David,  Solomon,  Isaiah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Obad- 
iah,  Jonah,  Amos  and  Hosea. 

3)  The  third  period  includes  the  interval  between  the 
Babylonian  exile  and  the  times  of  the  Maccabees  (b.  c.  600 — 
160).  Its  marked  feature  is  the  approximation  of  the  Hebrew 
to  the  kindred  Aramaic  and  Chaldee.  This  may  be  seen  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  in  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Chronicles,  Esther, 
Haggai,  Zachariah,  Malachi,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  Daniel  and 
the  later  Psalms.  Gradually  the  Aramaic  or  Chaldee  super- 
seded the  Hebrew  as  the  spoken  language  of  the  people. 
When  the  New  Testament  speaks  of  Hebrew  as  the  then  cur- 
rent language  in  Palestine,  we  must  understand  it  to  mean  the 
Aramaic  dialect. 

The  history  of  the  critical  study  of  the  Hebrew  begins  with 
the  Jewish  grammarians  and  scribes,  the  Talmudists  and  Ma- 
soretes,  who  carefully  collected  all  that  pertains  to  the  text  of 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  The  Christian  Fathers  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Origen,  Epiphanius,  and  especially  Jerome,  were 
ignorant  of  the  Hebrew  language,  and  derived  their  knowledge 
of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  Greek  Septuagint  and  the  La- 
tin Vulgate.  During  the  Middle  Ages,  Hebrew  was  almost 
exclusively  cultivated  by  learned  Jews,  especially  in  Spain 
during  the  Moorish  rule,  such  as  Aben  Ezra  (d.  1176),  David 
Kimchi  (d.  1235),  and  Moses  Maimonides  (d.  1204).*  After 
the    revival    of    letters    some    Christians    began   to  learn  it 

*  Condensed  from  the  article  on  Hebrew  Language  in  Johnson's  Universal  Cyc- 
lopadia  by  Dr.  Schafl. 


74  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

from  Jewish  Rabbis.    Reuchlin  \d.  1522), the  uncle  of  Melanch- 
thon,  is  the  father  of  modern  Hebrew  learning  in  the  Christian 
Church.     The  reformers  cultivated  and  highly  recommended 
the  study  of  Hebrew,  and   the    Protestant   translations    of  the 
Bible  were  made  directly  from  the  original  languages,  and  not 
from  the  Vulgate.     Luther,  the  greatest  master  perhaps  in  the 
annals   of  the  race  as  a  translator,   almost  despaired  at  times 
of  giving  German  equivalents  for  parts  of  the  Old  Testament. 
He  speaks  of  the  book  of  Job  and  of  the  other  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament  as  if  their  writers  were  resolutely  determined  not  to 
speak  in  German,  and  to  the  last  year  of  his  life,  Luther  labor- 
ed in  giving  greater  perfection  to  the  whole  translation.     The 
characteristic  difference  between  Luther's  German  version  and 
the  Authorised  (and    Revised)    English    version,  is    that   the 
Fnghsh  more  closely  follows  the  words  of  the   original,   while 
Luther's  reflects  more  perfectly  the  spirit  and  thought.     The 
one  is  a  splendid  illustration  of  the  mechanical,  the  other  of  the 
artistic.     The  English  often  reads  like  an  interlinear  transla- 
tion, Luther's  version  almost  constantly  reads  as  if  the  transla- 
tion were  an  original,  as  if  the  holy  writers  were  speaking  in 
German  as  their  own  vernacular.     Luther's  translation  was  at 
once  the  most  spirited,  the  most  dramatic,  the  most  lucid   ever 
given  of  the  Old  Testament,  but  when  we  see  that  even  it  fails 
very  often  to  convey  perfectly  the  exact  sense  of  the   Hebrew, 
we  feel  the  importance  of  a  thorough  study  of  that  language.* 
During  the  seventeenth  century  Johann  Buxtorf,  the   Elder 
{d.  1629),  and  his  son,  Johann  Buxtorf,  the  Younger  {d.  1664), 
b6th  of  Basel,  Louis  Cappel  id.  1658)  of  Saumur,  and  Salomon 
Glassius  [d.  1656)  of  Jena  were  the  most  prominent  Hebrew  and 
Talnmdic  Scholars.     Johann  David  Michaelis  {d.  1791)  gave  a 
great  impetus  to  the  study  of  the  Oriental  languages,  especially 
through  his  Oriental  and  Exegetical   Library,  begun  in    1771. 
In  the  present  century,  Wilhelm  Gesenius,  professor  in  Halle 
(1786-1842),    and    Heinrich    Ewald,    professor    in    Gbttingen 
(1803-73),  created  a  new  epoch  in  the  study  of  Hebrew.  Rod- 
iger,   Hupfeld,   Hitzig,  Fuerst,  Delitzsch,  Bottcher,   Olshausen 

«  See  Manuscript  Lectures  of  Dr.  Krauth. 


THE  HEBREW   LANGUAGE  75 

and  Bickell  of  Germany,  Ginsburg,  Cheyne,  Davidson.  Driver, 
Perowne  and  Davies  of  Great  Britain,  Moses  Stuart,  {d.  1852), 
Edward  Robinson  {d.  1863),  Bush,  Conant,  Tayler  Lewis, 
Green,  and  others  of  our  country,  deserve  special  mention  as 
Hebrew  scholars. 

HELPS  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  HEBREW.* 

1.   THE    MOST    APPROVED  METHOD  OF  STUDING  HEBREW. 

A  great  deal  depends  upon  the  method  used  by  the  teacher  in 
giving-  instruction  in  Hebrew.  Though  every  competent  instructor 
has,  more  or  less,  a  way  of  his  own  in  teaching,  yet  in  all  instruction 
especial  stress  from  the  very  beginning  ought  to  be  laid  1)  upon  a 
correct  and  tluent  reading  of  the  text,  2)  upon  a  thorough  mastery 
of  the  principles  of  grammar,  and  especially  of  the  verb,  and  3) 
upon  storing  the  memory  with  words  and  their  meaning.  (For 
acquiring  a  working  vocabulary  we  would  above  all  recommend 
Prof.  Harper's  Hebrew  Vocabularies,  and  on  account  of  its  portable 
form  and  cheapness  his  Hebrew  Word  Lists  for  class  use,  or  for 
private  studv). 

With  some  of  our  most  experienced  teachers  we  believe  that  it 
is  better  to  begin  with  a  full  grammar  than,  as  many  do,  with  a 
skeleton  or  mere  outline,  though  the  complete  mastering  of  the 
whole  is  not  to  be  attempted  at  once.  The  more  important  parts, 
usually  printed  in  larger  type  (as  in  the  well-known  grammars  of 
Gesenius  and  Green),  ought  to  be  studied  first,  and  the  rest,  in 
smaller  type,  to  be  left  for  after  study  and  for  reference.  The  study 
of  the  grammar  ought  to  be  accompanied  from  the  outset,  by  the 
reading,  translating,analysing  and  memorizing  of  Hebrew,  illustrat- 
ing the  principles  studied,  and  the  strictly  grammatical  study  of 
the  language  ought  to  be  finished  in  one  hundred  recitations  or 
lectures,  preparing  the  student  to  read  any  part  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment with  ease  and  with  profit.    Too  much  stress  cannot  he  laid 


*  There  lias  been  a  great  awakening  of  late  in  the  Study  of  Hebrew.  This  is 
mainly  to  be  attributed  to  the  energetic  labors  of  Prof.  W.  R.  Harper,  Ph.  D.,  of  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Morgan  Park,  Chicago,  who  tor  several  years  has  been  at 
the  head  of  a  Hebrew  Correspondence  School,  which  has  been  conducted  with  much 
enthusiasm,  ability,  and  success.  The  work  of  the  Correspondence  School  and  of 
the  Summer  Schools  of  Hebrew  is  now  under  the  general  management  of  Th£  Insti- 
tute of  Hebrew  which  is  composed  of  thirty-seven  Professors  of  Hebrew  in  the 
United  States.  Prof.  Harper,  however,  is  sUll  the  moving  spirit,  and  the  Principal 
of  the  several  schools  of  the  Institute.  The  aim  of  the  Institute  is  1)  to  furnish 
preparatory  instruction  in  Hebrew  to  Students  about  to  enter  Theological  Semi- 
naries; 2)  to  furnish  elementary  and  advanced  instruction  in  Hebrew  to  pastors 
and  others;  3)  to  furnish  opportunities  for  the  study  of  the  cognate  languages,  and 
of  such  historical,  literary  and  theological  sub.iects  connected  with  the  Old  Testa- 
ment asm  ly  be  desired;  4)  to  promote  a  more  general  interest  in  Old  Testament 
Study.  This  work  is  done  through  a  Correspondence  School  which  continues  through 
the  twelve  months  of  the  year,  and  through  Summer  Schools  held  at  different 
places  during  the  months  of  June.  July  and  August. 


'O  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

upon  the  importance  of  committing  to  memory  Hebrew  words  and 
their  meani7igs. 

2.      ELEMENTARY   TEXTBOOKS. 

1.  Ball,  C.  J.  A  Hebrew  Primer.  Adapted  to  the  Merchant 
Taylor's  Hebrew  Grammar.  In  three  parts:  1)  Easy  first 
exercises;  2)  First  reading,  with  notes;  3)  English  pieces  with 
hmts,  for  Hebrew  Composition.  London,  Bagster  and  Sons. 

2.  Davidson.  A.  B.  An  Introductory  Hebrew  Grammar.  With 
progressive  exercises  in  reading  and  writing.  Fifth  edition 
Edinburgh,   1882. 

For  beginners  who  wish  to  study  privately,' or  for  those  who 
wish  to  review  their  Hebrew,  nothing  ))etter  can  be  recommend- 
ed.^ltjs^^an  easy  introduction  to  the  larger^scientific  grammars. 

3.  Deutsch,  Solomon.  .1  New  Practical  Hebrew  Grammar,  with 
Hebrew-English,  and  English- Hebrew  Exercises,  and  a  Hebrew 
Chrestomathy.  New  York,  1868. 

4.  Green,  William  Henry.  A71  Elementary  Hebrew  Grammar 
with  reading  and  writing  lessons  and  vocabularies.^  :N"ew  York. 

5.  Harper,  William  R.  Elements  of  Hebrew  bv  an  Inductive 
Method.    Third  Edition,  1882.  Chicago. 

To  be  used  in  connection  with  the  Hebrew  Correspondence 
tichool  already  referred  to. 

6.  Kautzsch,  E.  Uebungsbuch  zu  Gesenius-Kautzsch's  Hebrais- 
cher  Grammatik.  Zweite  verbesserte  Aufiage.  Leipsic,  1884. 

i.    Mezger,  K.  L.  F.    Hebraisches   Otbungsbiich.    Eiu  Hilfsbuch 
tuer  Anfaenger  und  zum  Selbstunterricht,  im  Anschluss  an  die 
Grammatiken  von  Gesenius-Kautzsch  (23  Ausg.)  und  :N'aegels- 
bach  (3  Ausg.).   Yierte  umgearbeite  Ausgabe.  Leipsic,  1883. 
<^^e  of  the  best  helps  for  those  who  understand  German. 

8.  Mitchell,  H.  G.  Hebrew  Lessons.  A  book  for  beginners.  Boston, 
1884. 

9.  Strack,  Herm.  L.  Hebraische  Grammatik  mit  Uebungsstuecken, 
Litteratur  und  Yokabular.  Zuin  Selbststudium  und  fuer 
Unterricht.    Karlsruhe  und  Leipsic,  1883. 

Wolf,  J.  Robert.  A  Practical  Hebrew  Grammar,  with  progressive 
constructive  Exercises  to  everv  rule;  and  a  Reading  Book.  Lon- 
don, Bagster  and  Sons. 

An  excellent  little  work. 

3.      HEBREW  GRAMMARS. 

Bickell,  Gustavus.  Outlines  of  Hebrew  Grammar.  Revised  by 
the  author,  and  annotated  by  the  Translator,  Samuel  Ives  Cur- 
\^^^i    ^^it^  a  lithographic  table  of  Semitic  Characters.  Leipsic, 

1877.  ^     ' 

This  small  work,  though  containing  only  140  pages,  can  be  re- 
garded as  the  most  scientific  discussion  of  the  Hebrew  language 
which  has  yet  been  produced,  and  is  designed  for  students  in 
comparative  philology,  and  for  those  who  have  already  made 
some  progress  in  Hebrew. 

Boett(;her,  F.  Ausfuehrliches  Lehrbuch  der  hebr.  Sprache 
hersg.  von  F.  Muehlau,  2  Bde.  Leipsic,  1866—68. 

Though  incomplete,  not  containing  the  Syntax,  is  still  very 
valuable,  as  it  serves  as  a  sort  of  grammatical  concordance  to 
the  Old  Testament. 


10. 


HELPS   TO  THE  STUDY   OF   HEBREW.  77 

3.  Driver,  S.  R.  A  Treatise  on  the  Use  of  the  Tenses  m  Hebrew. 
Second  Edition.  Oxford,  1881. 

4.  Ewald,  Heinrich.  Syntax  of  the  Hebrew  Language.  Translated 
from  the  Eighth  German  Edition  by  James  Kennedy.  Edin- 
burgh, 1879. 

The  study  of  Ewald's  Grammar  is  indispensable  to  him  who 
would  gain  a  thorough  knowledge  of  Hebrew.  A  marked  and 
valuable  feature  of  this  work  is  its  copious  citation  of  illustrat- 
ed passages  from  the  Old  Testament,  there  being  no  less  than 
4,500  of  such  references  in  this  volume. 

5.  Gesenius,  Wilhelm.  Hebreio  Grammer.  Translated  by  Benja- 
min Da  vies,  from  Roediger's  Edition.  Thoroughly  revised  and 
enlarged  on  the  basis  of  the  latest  edition  of  Prof.  E.  Kautzsch, 
by  Edward  C.  Mitchell.  Andover,  1882. 

This  well-known  Grammar  holds  its  ground  as  one  of  the 
best  books  for  learners,  and  also  as  a  book  of  reference. 

6.  Green,  William  Henry.  A  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language. 
Third  Edition,  1869,  (Fourth  Edition,  in  press).  New  York. 

An  honor  to  American  Scholarship. 

7.  Kalisch,  M.  M.  A  Hebrew  Grammar  with  Exercises.  2  vols. 
London,   1862-8. 

8.  Mueller,  August.  Outlines  of  Hebrew  Syntax.  Translated  and 
edited  by  James  Robertson.  Glasgow,  1883. 

An  excellent  introduction  to  a  systematic  studv  of  the  Syntax. 
Possibly  the  best  work  on  Hebrew  Syntax  that  could  be  put 
in  the  hands  of  students. 

9.  Olshausen,  Justus.  Lehrbuch  der  Heb.  Sprache.  Braunschweig, 

Incomplete,  the  Syntax  having  never  been  published.  On  the 
whole,  the  best  and  most  scientific  exposition  of  Hebrew  Gram- 
matical forms. 

4.      LEXICONS,    CONCORDANCES,  ETC. 

1.  Bagster  and  Sons.  Hebrew-English  Lexicon.  By  W.  O.  London. 

This  is  a  very  handy  pocket  lexicon,  of  great  merit. 

2.  Davies,  Benjamin.  A  Compendious  and  complete  Hebrew  and 
Chaldee  Lexicon  to  the  Old  Testament,  with  an  English-He- 
brew Index.  Carefully  revised  by  Edward  C.  Mitchell.  Andover, 
1883 

Eor  all  practical  purposes  the  best  Lexicon  that  can  be  placed 
in  the  hands  of  students.  It  is  based  upon  the  Lexicons  of 
Fuerst  and  Gesenius,  and  all  the  definitions  have  been  re- 
written and  condensed  without  being  abridged. 

3.  Fuerst,  Julius.  A  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon  to  the  Old 
Testament.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Samuel  Davidson. 
Leipsic  and  London. 

4 Libroi'um     Sacrorum     V.    T.    Concordantive 

Hebraicaj  atque  Chaldaicse.  Leipsic,  1840. 

This  is  an  edition  of  Buxtorf 's  great  Concordance,  and  con- 
tains much  supplementary  matter,  but  its  etymological  prin- 
ciples are  faulty. 

5.  Gesenius,  Wilhelm.  Hebraisches  und  Chaldaisches  Handwoer- 
terbuch  ueber  das  Alte  Testament.  (9th  Edition,  1883).  Leipsic. 


78  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

An  English  translation  of  this  work  has  been  announced. 

6.  Girdlestone,  R.  B.  Synonyms  of  the  Old  Testament:  their 
bearing  on  Christian  Faith  and  Practice.  London,  1871. 

7.  Orelli,  Conrad  von.  Die  hebraischen  Synonyma  der  Zeit  und 
Eioigkeit  genetisch  und  sprachvergleichend  dargestellt.  Leip- 
sic,  1871.  112  pages. 

8.  Pappenheim,  Salomon.  Yerioth  STielomoh  (The  Curtains  of 
Solomon)  3  vols.  1784—1811.    Dyhrenforth  and  Pedelheim. 

This  remarkable  work  treats  of  the  Hebrew  Synonyms  of  the 
Bible,  and  it  is  the  only  lexicon  which  embraces  the  synonyms 
of  the  whole  Biblical  Hebrew.  The  importance  of  this  work 
can  hardly  be  overrated. 

9.  Robinson,  Edward.  A  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon  of  the  Old 
Testament,  including  the  Bildical  Chaldee.  From  the  Latin  of 
William  Gesenius.  22nd  Edition.  New  York. 

This  is  considered  as  "the  best  full  Hebrew  Lexicon  extant 
in  our  language." 

10.  Ryssel,  Victor.  Die  Synonyma  des  Wahren  und  guten  in  den 
semitischen  Spracnen.    Leipsic,  1872.  54  pages. 

11.  Tedeschi,  Moises.  Thesaurus  Synonymorum  linguae  hebraicue. 
Padova,  1880. 

12.  Young,  Robert.  Analytical  Concordance  to  the  Bible.  Con- 
taining every  word  in  alphabetical  order;  arranged  under  its 
Hebrew  and  Greek  original.    Edinburgh  and  Xew  York. 

A  very  valuable  work,  which  as  far  as  pertains  to  the  Old 
Testament,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  takes  the  place  of  the 
more  expensive  and  scholarly  Concordances  of  Buxtorf,  Fuerst 
and  Noldius. 

SECTION    XLIII. 

THE    OTHER    SEMITIC    DIALECTS. 

Closely  allied,  as  we  have  seen,  with  the  study  of  the  He- 
brew, is  that  of  the  Semitic  dialects.  As  introductory  to  the 
presentation  of  this  subject,  we  will  mention  the  languages 
which  it  is  desirable  for  the  theologian  to  understand,  and 
will  give  them  in  an  order  in  accordance  with  their  relative  im- 
portance.* 

1.  The  Greek,  as  the  language  of  the  New  Testament. 

2.  The  Hebrew,  including  the  Biblical  Chaldee,  as  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Old  Testament. 

3.  The  Latin,  as  the  great  key  to  the  erudition  of  ancient, 
mediaeval  and  modern  theologians. 

4.  The  German,  as  the  great  storehouse  of  theological  trea- 
sures since  the  Reformation. 

*    See  Manuscript  Lectures  of  Dr.  Krauth. 


THE   OTHER  SEMITIC   DIALECTS.  79 

5.  The  Syriac  and  non- Biblical  Chaldee,  the  two  forming 
the  Aramaic.  These  furnish  the  key  to  the  oldest  of  the  New 
Testament  Versions  and  to  the  Targums  or  Chaldee  paraphra- 
ses, which  are  so  important  in  the  illustration  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  in  the  mastery  of  the  Rabbinic  which  contains  the 
treasures  of  the  post- Christian  Jewish  Biblical  interpretation. 

6.  The  Arabic,  the  most  copious  of  the  Semitic  languages, 
with  a  great  literature  of  its  own,  and  invaluable  in  Hebrew 
lexicography. 

7.  The  Semitic  dialects  not  already  enumerated,  e.  g.,  the 
Samaritan  and  Ethiopic,  which  are  easy  of  acquisition  when 
any  one  of  the  family  has  been  mastered,  and  are  useful  in  lexi- 
cography and  interpretation. 

8.  The  Sanscrit,  as  the  oldest  in  the  great  family  of  the 
Indo-European  languages,  and  of  importance  in  theology,  es- 
pecially as  fixing  the  etymology  and  original  force  of  disputed 
words. 

Some  of  the  most  important  critical  questions  of  the  day 
centre  around  the  Old  Testament,  and  he  who  would  be  an 
authority  in  these  subjects  must  have  mastered  the  Hebrew 
language,  not  only  in  its  classical  form,  but  also  in  those 
cognate  dialects  which  so  frequently  illustrate  both  the  thought 
and  the  idiom  of  the  Old  Testament.  He  must  know  Chaldee, 
Syriac,  Arabic,  and  the  composite  tongue  (Rabbinic),  which  is 
the  language  of  Jewish  tradition  and  Jewish  exegesis.  Although 
it  seems  to  be  accepted  as  fixed  that  none  but  professional 
theologians  shall  devote  themselves  to  these  languages  in  any 
large  measure,  yet  experience  has  shown  that  pastors  in  active 
duty  can  make  themselves  masters  of  at  least  a  portion  of 
them  in  sufficient  degree  to  find  their  knowledge  useful. 

All  students,  preparing-  for  entrance  into  a  Theological  Semi- 
nary, ought  to  be  granted  the  privilege  of  electing  Hebrew  (mstead 
of  Latin),  as  one  of  the  studies  of  the  Senior  year  of  College,  a 
privilege  which  has  already  been  granted  by  some  of  our  leading 
institutions. 

It  is  likewise  desireable  that  provision  be  made  in  our  Theologi- 
cal Seminaries,  to  furnish  to  such  students  as  may  desire  it,  instruc- 
tion in  Chaldee,  Syriac,  Arabic,  etc.  These  Cognate  languages  are 
already  taught  in  "many  of  the  Presbyterian  and  Congregational 
Theological  Seminaries  of  our  country. 


SELECT  LITERATURE 

OF    THE    MOST 

SERVICEABLE  ORIENTAL  LANGUAGES. 

1.     BIBLICAL     CHALDEE     AND     POST-BIBLICAL     HEBREW. 

1.  Brown,  Charles  K.  An  Aramaic  3Iet?iod,  a  Class  Book  for  the 
Study  of  the  Elements  of  Aramaic  from  Bible  and  Targums. 
Parti.    Text,  Xotes  and  Vocabulary.    Chicago,  1884. 

2.  Buxtorf,  Johannis.  Lexicon  Clialdaicum,  Talmudictiin  et  Rah- 
hinicuin,  etc.    Basel,  1640. 

3.  Chaldee  Reading  Lessons,  consisting  of  the  whole  of  the  Biblical 
Chaldee,  with  grammatical  Praxis,  and  an  Interlinear  translation. 
Bagster  and  Sons.    London. 

4.  Fischer,  Bernard.  Tahnudische  Chrestomathie,  mit  Anmer- 
kungen,  Scholien  und  Glossar.    Leipsic,  1884. 

5.  Levy,  Jacob.  Neuhehrdisches  und  Chalddisches  Wosrterhuch 
ueher  die  Talmudim  und  Midrascliim  nebst  Beitraegen  von  H. 
L.  Fleischer.  4  Bde,  Leipsic,  1876—83.  (Only  three  volumes 
have  as  yet  appeared.) 

6.  Luzzatto,  S.  D.  Grammar  of  the  Biblical  Chaldaic  Language 
and  the  Talmud  Babli  Idioms.  Translated  from  the  Italian, 
and  largely  renewed  by  J.  S.  Goldammer.    New  York,  1876. 

7.  Riggs,  Elias.  A  Manual  of  the  Chaldee  Language,  containing 
a  Chaldee  Grammar,  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Winer  ;  a  Chrest- 
omathy,  consisting  of  selections  from  the  Targums,  and  includ- 
ing notes  on  the  Biblical  Chaldee;  and  a  Vocabulary.  Third 
edition,  revised.    New  York,  1866. 

8.  Strack,  Herm.  L.  Firke  AvotJi.  Die  Sprueche  der  Vaeter.  Em 
ethischer  Mischna-Traktat,  mit  kurzer  Einleitung,  Anmerkun- 
gen  und  einem  Wortregister.    Karlsruhe  und  Leipsic,  1882. 

9.  Strack,  Herm.  L.  und  Siegfried,  Carl,  Lehrhuch  der  neu-hehrCti- 
schen  Sprache  und  Literatiir.    Karlsruhe  und  Leipsic,  1884. 

A  Chrestomathy  by  the  same  authors  is  in  preparation. 

10.  Winer's  Chalddische  Grammatik  fuer  Bibel  und  Talmud.  3. 
Aufl.  verm,  durch  eine  Andeutung  zum  Studium  des  Midrasch 
und  Talmud  von  B.  Fischer.    Leipsic,  1882. 

2.     SYRIAC. 

1.  Castell,  Edmund.    Lexicon  Syriacu^n,  etc.    Goettingen,  1788. 
This  is  still  the  best  available  lexicon. 

2.  Cowper,  B.  Harris.  TJie  Frificiples  of  Syriac  Grammar.  Trans- 
lated and  abridged  from  the  work  of  Hoffmann.    London,  1858. 

3.  (Davidson,  B).  Syriac  Reading  Lessons.  AYith  the  elements  of 
Syriac  Grammar.    Samuel  Bagster  and  Sons.    London. 

4.  Henderson,  E.  A  Syriac  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament.  Sa- 
muel Bagster  and  Sons.  London.  T-his  is  an  edition  of  Gutbir's 


SELECT    LITERATURE.  81 

Syriac  Lexicon  and  is  very  cheap.    It  can  also  be  had,  bound 
with  Henderson's  edition  of  Gutbir's  Syriac  New  Testament. 
For  beginners  no  better  book  can  be  recommended. 

5.  Merx,  Adalbert.  Qrammatica  ^yriaca,  quam  post  opus  Hoff- 
mann refecit.    Halle. 

6.  Nestle,  Eberard.  Brevis  Linyuce  Syriacce  Grammatica  (Peter- 
mann's  Series).    Carlsruhe  and  Leipsic,  1881. 

7.  Phillips,  George.  A  Syriac  Grammar.  Third  edition.  Cam- 
bridge, 1866. 

8.  Roediger,  Aemilius.  Chrestomathia  Syriaca.  Editio  altera 
aucta  et  emendata.    Halle,  1868. 

9  Sehaaf,  C.    Lexico7i  Syriaciim  Concordantiale.    Leyden,  1708. 

This  is  appended  to  Sehaaf 's  edition  of  the  Syriac  New  Testa- 
ment, and  is  the  best  lexicon  for  the  New  Testament,  and  valu- 
able as  a  concordance. 

10  Smith,  Eobert  Pavne.  Thesaurus  Syriacus,  etc.  This  is  an 
immense  work,  now  publishing  at  Oxford,  of  which  nearly  2,500 
pages  have  already  appeared,  although  the  letter  M  is  not  yet 
completed. 

11.  Uhlemann's  Syriac  Grammar.  Translated  from  the  German  by 
Enoch  Hutchinson,  wath  a  course  of  exercises  in  Syriac  Gram- 
mar, a  Chrestomathy,  and  brief  Lexicon.  Second  edition,  with 
additions  and  corrections.    New^  York. 

3.     ARABIC. 

1.  Arnold,  F.  A.    Chrestomathia  Arahica.    Halle,  1853. 

2.  Catafago,  Joseph.  An  English  and  Arabic  Dictionary.  Second 
edition.    London,  1873. 

3  Davis,  N..  and  Davidson.  B.  Arabic  Reading  Lessons.  With 
the  elements  of  Arabic  Grammar.    Samuel  Bagster  and  Sons. 

All  of  Bagster's  Elementary  text-books  of  the  Oriental  lan- 
guages are  valuable. 

4.  Freytag,  G.  W.  Lexicon  AraUco-Latinum  ex  opere  suo  majore 
in  usum  tironum  excerptum  edidit.    Halle,  1837. 

For  the  great  majority  of  students  this  work  will  answ^er  every 
purpose,  being  an  abridgement  of  the  author's  larger  work  in 
four  volumes. 

5.  Lane,  Edward  William.  An  Arabic  Lexicon,  etc.  An  immense 
work,  continued  by  Stanley  Lane  Poole.  It  contains  already, 
though  incompleted,  nearly  3,000  pages,  in  6  volumes. 

6.  Newman,  Francis  W.  A  Handbook  of  Modern  Arabic.  Consist- 
ing of  a  Practical  Grammar,  with  numerous  examples,  dialogues, 
and  newspaper  extracts  in  a  European  type.    London,  1866. 

7  Palmer,  E.  H.  A  Grammar  of  the  Arabic  Language.  London, 
1874. 

8  Petermann,  J.  H.  Brevis  Linguoi  Arabicw  Grammatica, 
Literatura,  Chrestomathia  cum  Glossario.  Editio  secunda 
emendata  et  aucta.    Berlin,  1867. 

9.  Wright,  W.  A  Grammar  of  the  Arabic  Language,  translated 
from  the  German  of  Caspari.  Second  edition,  revised  and  great- 
ly enlarged.    2  vols.    London,  1874,  75. 


82  THEOLOGICAL   ENOYCLOPiEDIA. 

10 An  Arabic  Chrestomathy,  with  complete  Glossary. 

2  vols.    London,  1870. 

4.      SAMARITAN. 

1.  Nicholls,  G.  F.  A  Grammar  of  the  ^ainarita.n  Language,  with 
extracts  and  Vocabulary.    Samuel  Bagster  and  Sons.    London. 

2.  Petermann,  J.  H.  Brevis  Linguce  ^amaritance  zGriammatica. 
Berlin,  1873. 

5.  ETHIOFIC.j 

1.    Dillmann,  August.    Grammatik  der   JEthiopischen   ISprache. 

Leipsic,  1857. 

2 "  Chrestomathia  JEthiopica.    Leipsic,  1866.    . 

3 Lexicon  Linguce  jEthiopiccv.    Leipsic,  1865. 

4-    Wright,  W.    T/ie  i?oo/c  o//oria7i  in  four  Semitic  Versions,  viz., 

Chaldee,  Syriac,  jEthiopic,  and  Arabic.    With  corresponding 

Glossaries.    Williams  and  Norgate.    London,  1857. 
This  work  ought  to  be  in  the  hands  of  all  students  of  the 

Semitic  dialects. 

6.  ASSYRIAN. 

1.  Budge,  Ernest  A.  Assyrian  Texts.  With  philological  notes. 
Bagster  and  Sons.    London. 

2.  Delitzsch,  Fried.  Assyrische  Lesesttiecke.  2te  Autiage.  Leip- 
sic, 1878. 

3 Assyrisches  WorterbucJi.    (In  preparation), 

4.  Haupt,  Paul.    Assyrische  Grammatik.    (In  preparation). 

5.  Sayce,  A.  H.  An  Elementary  Grammar  and  Reading  Book  of 
the  Assyrian  Language,  in  the  Cuneiform  character:  Contain- 
the  most  complete  Syllabary  yet  extant,  and  which  will  serve 
also  as  a  Vocabulary  of  both  Accadian  and  Assyrian.  Second 
edition,  revised  and  corrected.    Bagster  and  Sons.    London. 

6 Lectures  upon  the  Assyrian  L^anguage,  and  Syl- 
labary, delivered  to  the  students  of  the  Archaic  classes.  Bagster 
and  Sons.    London. 

7.  Schrader,  Eberhard.  Die  Assyrisches-babylonisrJie}  ^Keilin- 
schrifteu.    Leipsic,  1872. 

7.      EGYPTIAN. 

1.  Birch,  S.  Egyptian  Texts.  For  the  use  of  students.  Samuel 
Bagster  and  Sons.    London. 

The  best  reading  book  for  beginners. 

2.  Brugsch,  H.     Gram7naire  Hieroglypliique. 

Only  second  to  De  Roug.-'s  Grammar,  and  more  complete. 

3 Hieroglyphisch  Bemotisches  Woerterbueh. 

The  fullest  and  best  Ancient  Egyptian  Lexicon. 
4.    Poole,  Reginald  S.    Article  on  Hieroglyphics  in  Encyclopa?dia 
Brittannica.    Ninth  edition. 

A  most  valuable  contribution  to  Egyptology,  a  volume  in  it- 
self. 

6.  Renouf,  P.  le  Page.  An  Elementary  Manual  of  the  Egyptian 
Language.    Samuel  Bagster  and  Sons.    London. 

The  best  grammar  for  beginners. 


SELECT   LITERATURE.  SS 

6.     Roiig-e,  Yi(^omte  de.    CJirestomathie  Egyptieime. 
The  best  Egyptian  grammar. 

8.      SANSCRIT. 

1.  Ballantyne.  James  R.  First  Lessons  in  Sanskrit  Grammar,  to- 
gether with  an  Introduction  to  the  Plitopadesa.    London,   1873. 

2.  Benfey,  Th.  .-1  Practical  Orammar  of  the  Sanskrit  Langnaije 
for  the  use  of  early  Students.  Second  edition.  Revised  and  cor- 
rected.   London,  1868. 

3 A  Sanskrit-English  Dictionary  with  reference 

to  the  best  editions  of  Sanskrit  Authors  and  Etymologies  and 
comparisons  of  cognate  words  chiefly  in  Greek,  Latin,  Gothic 
and  Anglo-Saxon.    London,  1866. 

4.  Lanman,  Charles  Rockwell.  A  Saiiskrit  Reader,  with  Vocabu- 
lary and  Notes.     For  use  in  Colleges  and  for  private  study. 

This  excellent  work  is  intended  as  a  companion  volume  to 
Whitney's  Sanskrit  Orammar. 

•J.  Stenzler,  Adolf  Friedrich.  Elementarhuch  der  Sanskrit  Sjyrache, 
Grammatik,  Text,  Woerterbuch.  Dritte  vermehrte  Auflage. 
Breslau,  1875. 

6.  Whitney,  William  Dwight.  A  Sanskrit  (jframmar,  including 
both  the  classical  language,  and  the  older  dialects,  of  Veda  and 
Brahmana.    Boston, 

This  is  the  best  grammar  for  the  student. 

7.  Williams,  Monier.  .4  Practical  Qrammar  of  the  Sanskrit  Lan- 
guage, arranged  with  reference  to  the  classical  languages  of 
Europe,  for  the  use  of  English  students.  Third  edition,  much 
enlarged  and  improved.    Oxford,  1864. 

8 Sanskrit  Manual.  Second  edition,  enlarged.  With 

a  vocabulary  English  and  Sanskrit.    London,  1869. 

9 Story  of  Nala.  The  Sanskrit  Text,  with  a  copi- 
ous Vocabulary,  Grammatical  Analysis,  and  Introduction.  With 
a  metrical  translation  by  Dean  Milman.    Oxford,  1860. 

10 A    Sanskrit-English   Dictionary  etymologically 

and  philologically  arranged  with  special  reference  to  Greek, 
Latin,  Gothic,  German,  Anglo-Saxon  and  other  cognate  Indo- 
European  Languages.    Oxford,  1872.     ' 

SECTION    XLIV. 

THE    HELLENISTIC-GREEK  LANGUAGE. 

We  have  seen  that  the  Hebrew  is  necessary  not  only  for 
the  study  of  the  Old  Testament,  but  for  a  thorough  study ^'  of 
the  New ;  and  it  might  be  thought  that  by  combining  a  knowl- 
edge of  Hebrew  with  a  knowledge  of  classical  Greek  we 
would  have  all  that  is  necessary  for  the  New  Testament  inter- 
preter. Such  however  is  not  the]  case.  The  New  Testament 
is  indeed  written  in  Greek,  but  this'Greek  both  grammatically 
and  lexically  differs' from  the[ classic   Greek  in  very  important 


84  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

respects.  Simple  and  certain  as  this  fact  is,  it  has  been  rejected 
by  pious  ignorance  under  the  impression  that  such  an  admis- 
sion in  someway  conflicts  with  the  inspiration  of  the  New 
Testament,  as  if  it  involved  that  the  Holy  Spirit  did  not  inspire 
man  to  use  the  purest  Greek.  The  fact  in  the  case  is  this, 
that  classic  Greek  is  Pagan  Greek.  The  most  important 
differences  of  the  New  Testament  idiom  from  the  classic  Greek, 
either  in  no  sense  conflict  with  its  adaptation  as  the  organ  ol 
revelation,  or  actually  adapt  it  to  that  work. 

The  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  was  influenced  by 
Hebraistic  elem.ents,  by  transitions  of  the  Greek  into  the  He- 
brew, of  the  Hebrew,  into  the  Greek,  and  of  oriental  modes  of 
thought  and  speech  into  occidental  forms.  It  was  influenced 
by  the  Alexandrian  age,  which  bridged  over  the  chasm  be- 
tween the  Orient  and  the  West. 

The  foundation  of  the  New  Testa  nent  Greek  is  the  so- 
called  Common  Greek  dialect  which  in  the  time  of  Augustus 
was  completely  and  absolutely  dominant  in  literature.  This 
Common  dialect  has  been  deeply  tinged  by  Jewish  Hellenistic 
thinking  and  phraseology.  To  understand  the  common 
groundwork  we  go  to  the  writers  in  the  common  dialect,  such 
as  Polybius  and  Plutarch,  and  more  especially,  however,  to  the 
Septuagint  Version  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  Old  Testament 
Apocrypha,  Philo  and  Josephus,  But  all  this  philological 
preparation  is  far  from  exhausting  what  is  needful  for  the  New 
Testament  interpreter.  The  New  Testament  opened  a  New 
world  of  spiritual  conception.  Its  authors  were  compelled  to 
create  a  new  language ;  they  could  express  Christian  ideas 
only  in  words  which  had  a  Christian  force.  This  new  language 
they  created  by  taking  old  terms  and  vitalizing  them  with  a 
higher  meaning. 

There  are  consequently  three  elements  necessary  to  the 
general  study  of  the  New  Testament:  i)  a  knowledge  of  the 
Greek;  2)  of  the  Jewish  and  Old  Testament  elements,  verbal 
and^real,  which  tinge  the  Greek,  and  3)  of  the  new  distinctive 
Christian  elements.  But  in  the  study  of  the  particular  parts 
we  require  more  than  this ;  each  of  the  New  Testament  writers 
has  his  own    peculiarities.     The  Greek   of  one  is    purer   than 


THE   HELLENISTIC-GREEK   LANGUAGE.  85 

that  of  another ;  one  has  more  of  the  Hebraizing  elements 
than  another.  The  least  influence  of  the  Hebrew  element 
linguistically,  is  seen  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  The  structure 
of  the  style  and  the  arrangement  of  words  is  different  in  the 
various  New  Testament  writers.  Some  of  the  writers  more 
largely  than  others  use  certain  words  in  a  peculiar  sense,  as 
St.  John  for  instance  uses  the  term  logos,  (word,)  etc.  St.  Paul 
uses  in  a  special  sense  such  words  as  faith,  righteousfiess,  grace 
reconciliation,  etc. ;  St.  James  also  uses  the  word  faith  in  a 
sense  different  from  that  of  St.  Paul.  In  addition  to  these 
lexical  differences,  there  are  also  diversities  of  grammar. 

Clergymen  should  never  forget  that  the  Scriptures  of  the  iS'ew 
Testament  have  been  written  in  the  Greek  tongue,  and  that  it  is 
the  distinct  work  of  the  preacher's  life  to  unfold  the  meaning  of  the 
Word  of  God  and  enforce  its  truths.  No  man  can  do  this  with 
proper  confidence,  when  he  draws  his  knowledge  at  second  hand 
from  commentators.  Whatever  our  hearers  may  do  with  transla- 
tions, ministers,  at  least,  should  read  the  New  Testament  in  the 
original,  critically  and  with  ease. 

He  who  would  train  himself  to  be  a  reverential  thinker,  a 
scholarly  Christian,  a  sound  divine,  must  habituate  himself  to  a 
patient  and  thoughtful  study  of  the  very  words  of  Christ  and  His 
Apostles.  If  the  words  of  the  Greek  New  Testament  be  divinely 
inspired,  then  surely  it  is  a  pastor's  noblest  occupation,  patiently 
and  lovingly  to  note  every  change  of  expression,  every  turn  of 
language,  every  variety  of  inflection,  to  analyze  and  to  investigate, 
to  contrast  and  to  compare,  until  he  has  obtained  some  accurate 
knowlege  of  those  outward  elements,  which  are  permeated  by  the 
inward  influence  and  powars  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

All  sober  thinkers  will  agree,  that  there  is  no  one  thing  for 
which  a  minister  will  have  hereafter  to  answer  before  the  dread 
tribunal  of  God  with  more  terrible  strictness  than  for  having 
attempted  to  explain  the  everlasting  words  of  life  with  haste  and 
precipitation.  Every  particle  and  preposition  has  a  distinctive 
meaning,  and  we  should  pause  before  we  presume  to  hurry  through 
the  sanctuary  of  God,  with  the  dust  and  turmoil  of  w^ordly,  self- 
seeking,  irreverent  speed.  It  is  useless  to  disguise  that  the  close 
analysis  of  the  sacred  text  is  very  difticult— it  requires  a  calm 
judgment,  a  disciplined  mind,  no  less  than  a  loving  and  teachable 
heart.  No  one  can  acquire  this  power  in  a  week  or  in  a  month. 
But  if  the  Greek  text  be  inspired,  no  labor  in  this  direction  can  be 
too  severe,  no  exercise  of  thought  to  close  or  persistent,  no  prayer 
for  guidance  to  earnest. 

The  science  of  Greek  grammar  is  now  so  much  advanced- 
syntax  and  logic,  the  meaning  of  individual  passages  and  the 
analogy'of  faith,  are  now  so  well  and  happily  combined— that  no 
one  who  is  really  in  earnest  and  to  whom  God  has  given  a  fair 
measure  of  ability,  can  for  a  moment  justly  plead  that  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  is  beyond  his  grasp. 


8b  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

We  purposely  say,  Greek  of  the  Xew  Testament,  for  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  language  of  the  Greek  Testament  may  be  acqirecl 
far  more  easily  than  at  first  might  be  imagined. 

The  formal  differences  of  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament 
from  classical  Greek  are  partly  differences  of  vocabulary  and  partly 
differences  of  construction.  AVe  can  arrange  these  differences 
under  four  classes:  1)  changes  in  orthography;  2)  peculiarities  of 
inflection;  3)  formation  of  new  words,  mainly  by  composition;  and 

4)  irregular  constructions  in  the  combination  of  words. 

These  peculiarities  of  the  New  Testament  language,  however, 
have  only  a  remote  connection  with  interpretation.  There  are 
other  peculiarities  which  have  a  more  important  bearing  on  the 
sense.*  These  are  in  part  Hebraisms,  and  in  part  modifications  of 
language  resulting  from  the  substance  of  Christian  revelations, 
and  may  be  arranged  under  three  classes:  1)  Hebraisms  in  expres- 
sion; 2)  Hebraisms  in  construction;  3)  the  purely  Christian  element. 

Reuss  in  his  History  of  the  New  Testament  under  Hebraisms 
distinguishes  1)  Hebrew  technical  and  theological  terms  {Messiah, 
>Satan,  yehenna,  manna,  pascha,  etc.),  2)  Greek  words  with  Hebrew 
meaning  {s^jerma,  demon,  skandalon, prophet,  etc.);  3)  Greek  words 
in  purely  Hebrew  phrases;  4)  new  words  derived  from  the  Hebrew; 

5)  Hebrew  metaphors;  and  6)  Hebrew  constructions.  He  also  dis- 
tinguishes between  Hebraisms  and  Aramaisms,  referring  lo  \ 
latter,  expressions  belonging  to  Jewish  theology,  such  as  diaholos 
antichristos,  etc.  | 

Ihe  purely  Christian  element  in  the  Xew  Testament  requires 
h  most  careful  treatment.  Words  and  phrases  already  partially 
urren  t  were  transfigured  by  embodying  new  truths  and  forever 
consecrated  to  their  service.  To  trace  the  history  of  these  is  a 
delicate  question  of  lexicography,  but  much  assistance  in  this  de- 
partment has  been  given  by  I)r.  Hermann  Cremer  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Greifswald,  in  his  Biblico-Theoloyical  Lexiconjof  New 
Testament  Greek. 

*'See  an  excellent  article  on  T?ie  Langtmge  of  the  New  Testament  by  Canon 
Westcott  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bibk,  Vol.  3.  pp.  2139— 214:^  (Kurd  and 
Houghton's  edition). 

t  See  Uqmss's  History  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  of  the  New  Testament,  trauslated 
,by  Edward  Houghton,  Vol.  1.  pp.  36.  37. 


SELECT  LITERATURE 

OF 

NEW  TESTAMENT  GREEK. 

1.      TEXT-BOOKS  IN  GREEK. 

1.  Boise,  James  R.  First  Lessons  in  Greek :  Adapted  to  Hadley's 
Greek  Grammars,  also  an  Appendix  with  referenses  to  Good- 
win's Greek  Grammar.  Intended  as  an  Introduction  to  Xeno- 
phon's  Anabasis.    Chicago.    S.  C.  Griggs  &  Co. 

2 Exercises  in  some  of  the  more  difficult  principles 

of  Greek  Syntax :  With  references  to  the  Grammars  of  Crosby, 
Curtius,  Goodwin,  Hadley,  Koch  and  Kuehner.  A  sequel  to 
Jones's  Exercises  in  Greek  Prose  Composition,  and  intended  for 
the  first  year  in  College.    Chicago.    S.  C.  Griggs  &  Co. 

3.  Crosby,  Alpheus.  A  Grammar  of  the  Greek  Language.  For 
the  use  of  Schools  and  Colleges.^  Revised  edition.  New  York 
and  Chicago. 

4.  Goodwin,  William  II.  An  Elementary  Greek  Grammar.  Re- 
vised and  enlarged  Edition.    Boston. 

5 Syntax  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses  of  the  Greek  Verb. 

Seventh  Edition.    Revised  and  enlarged.    Boston. 

6.  Hadley,  James.  A  Greek  Gram,mar  for  Schools  and  Colleges. 
Revised  and  in  part  rewritten  by  E.  D.  Allen.  New  York.  D. 
Appleton  &  Co.    1884. 

7.  Jones,  Elisha.  Exercises  in  Greek  Prose  Composition:  With 
references  to  Hadley's,  Goodwin's,  and  Taylor's  Kuehner's  Greek 
Grammars;  and  a  full  English-Greek  Vocabulary.  Chicago.  S.  C. 
Griggs  &  Co. 

No  better  guides  for  the  thorough  study  of  the  Greek  language 
can  be  selected  than  the  elementary  works  of  Boise  and  Jones, 
here  referred  to.  The  beginner  should  take  up  first  of  all,  in 
connection  with  Hadley's  or  Goodwin's  Grammar,  Boise's  First 
Lessons  in  Greek,  which  would  familiarize  him  with  the  ordi- 
nary inflection  of  words  and  furnish  him  with  a  sufficient  amount 
of  grammatical  knowledge,  to  enable  the  learner  successfully  to 
enter  upon  the  study  of  Xenophon's  Anabasis.  After  this,  while 
reading  Xenophon's  Anabasis,  Jones's  Exercises  in  Greek  Prose 
Composition  should  be  studied,  which  contains  sufficient  work 
in  prose  composition  for  admission  to  any  American  College, 
and  is  admirably  adapted  for  laying  a  thorough  foundation  for 
more  advanced  study  of  the  language.  Finally  in  Boise's  Exer- 
cises in  Greek  Syntax,  we  have  an  admirable  help  for  those  who 
wish  rapidly  and  surely  to  build  up  the  most  complete  and 
thorough  scholarship.    For  those  who  wish  to  review  their 


88  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPCEDIA. 

Greek  thoroughly,  no  better  method  can  be  suggested  than  the 
above. 
8.  White,  John  Williams.  A  Series  of  First  Lessons  in  Greek  : 
adapted  to  Goodwin's  Greek  Grammar.  With  a  companion 
pamphlet  of  parallel  references  to  Hadley's  Greek  Grammar. 
Boston.    Ginn,  Heath  &  Co. 

An  admirable  work  which  is  especially  adapted  to  Goodwin's 
Greek  Grammar,  and  which  may  be  substituted  for  Boise's  Fii'st 
Lessons  in  Greek,  above  referred  to. 

2.     GRAMMARS  OF  THE  NEW   TESTAMENT   GREEK. 

1.  Buttmann,  Alexander.  A  Grammar  of  the  New  Testament 
Greek.  Authorized  Translation,  with  numerous  additions  and 
corrections  by  the  Author,  by  J.  H.  Thayer.  Warren  F.  Draper. 
Andover,  1876. 

This  is  the  most  important  treatise  on  the  subject  which  has 
appeared  since  Winer's.  It  is  not  so  elaborate  as  the  latter,  and 
therefore  more  suitable  for  beginners.  Prof.  Thayer,  in  his 
translation,  has  added  running  references  to  the  Classical  Gram- 
mars most  in  use  in  this  country.  (Hadley's,  Crosby's,  Goodwin's 
Syntax  of  Moods  and  Tenses).  There  are  four  very  elaborate 
indexes,  very  carefully  prepared,  and  the  last  contains  at  least 
10,000  references  to  passages  in  the  N.  T.,  which  are  either  ex- 
plained or  cited. 

2.  Cary,  G.  L.  An  Introduction  to  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Second  Edition.  Pp.  66.  Warren  F.  Draper.  Andover, 
1881. 

An  excellent  little  work  for  those  who  are  unacquainted  with 
the  Greek  language,  and  who  would  nevertheless  be  glad  to  read 
the  New  Testament  in  the  original.  He  who  begins  with  this 
book  will  soon  be  able  to  use  more  elaborate  works. 

3.  Greek  Student's  Manual.  I.  A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Greek 
Testament,  designed  for  those  who  have  no  knowledge  of  the 
Greek  language.  II.  The  New^  Testament,  Greek  and  English. 
III.  A  Greek  and  English  Lexicon.  Pages  676.  Bagster  and 
Sons.    London. 

4.  Green,  Samuel  G.  Ha^idhook  to  the  Grammar  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment. Together  with  a  complete  Vocabulary,  and  an  examina- 
tion of  the  chief  New  Testament  Synonyms.  The  Religious 
Tract  Society.    London. 

An  excellent  Manual,  probably  the  very  best  that  can  be  placed 
in  a  student's  hands.  It  is  a  sufficient  guide  to  Biblical  Greek 
in  the  great  majority  of  cases.  It  contains  exercises  in  transla- 
tion, preparatory  reading  lessons,  an  examination  of  the  chief 
New  Testament  Synonyms,  an  analytical  exercise  on  the  whole 
of  2  Thessalonians,  and  a  very  full  vocabulary  of  the  Received 
Text. 

5.  Winer,  George  Benedict.  A  Grammar  of  the  Idiom  of  the  New 
Testament,  prepared  as  a  solid  basis  for  the  interpretation  of  the 
New  Testament.  Seventh  edition,  enlarged  and  improved.  By 
Dr.  Gottlieb  Luenemann.  Revised  and  authorized  Translation 
by  Prof.  J.  Henry  Thayer.  Pp.  728.  Warren  F.  Draper.  Ando- 
ver, 1877. 


SELECT  LITERATTTRE  OF   NEW  TESTAMENT  GREEK.  89 

This  is  the  most  elaborate  and  valuable  work  ever  published 
on  this  subject,  the  standard  authority.  The  three  indexes  to 
this  volume  are  models  of  their  kinds,  covering  84  pages,  and  a 
marked  and  valuable  feature  of  this  Grammar  is  the  copious  ci- 
^'  tation  of  passages  in  the  New  Testament,  there  being  at  least,  on 
a  close  calculation  of  Index  No.  3,  more  than  21,000  passages 
cited  as  illustrations. 

There  is  no  exaggeration  in  saying  that  the  student  who  has 
in  his  library  the  grammars  of  Green,  Buttman  and  Winer,  pos- 
sesses a  grammatical  commentary  on  every  difficult  text,  we 
might  say,  on  every  difficult  construction,  in  the  whole  Greek 
Testament. 

3.     LEXICONS. 

1.   Analytical  Greek  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament.    4to,  pp,  490. 
Bagster  and  Sons.    London. 

This  work  contains  as  a  preface,  tables  of  the  declensions  and 
conjugations,  with  explanatory  grammatical  remarks.  The  Dic- 
tionary consists  of  an  alphabetical  arrangement  of  every  occuring 
inflection  of  every  word  contained  in  the  Greek  New  Testament 
with  a  grammatical  analysis  of  each  word. 

This  work  is  adapted  to  those  who  have  but  a  very  limited 
knowledge  of  Greek. 
5.   Cremer,  Hermann.  Biblisch-theologisches  Woerterhuch  der  nevr 
test.  Gracitat.    Dritte  Auflage.    Gotha,  1882. 

The  second  German  Edition  has  been  translated  into  English, 
of  which  three  editions  have  already  appeared  from  the  well- 
known  house  of  T.  &  T.  Clark,  Edinburgh,  under  the  title  Bibli- 
GO-Theological  Lexicon  of  the  New  Testament  Greek. 

This  is  the  most  important  contribution  to  the  study  of  New 
Testament  Exegesis  which  has  appeared  for  many  years,  but  the 
student  must  not  expect  to  find  in  it  every  word  which  the  New 
Testament  contains.  For  words  whose  ordinary  meaning  in  the 
classics  is  retained  unmodified  and  unchanged  in  Scripture,  we 
must  resort  still  to  classical  lexicons  (Liddell  and  Scott),  or  to 
Robinson's  Lexicon  of  the  Greek  New  Testament,  for  Dr.  Cremer 
only  discusses  words  and  expressions  which  are  of  a  biblical  and 
theological  import,  words  whose  meanings  are  modified,  and 
which  have  become  the  bases  and  watchwords  of  Christian  Theo- 
logy. 

3.  Green,  Thomas  S.  A  Pocket  Greek-English  Lexicon  to  the  New 
Testament.    Bagster  and  Sons.    London.    Price  25.  Qd. 

An  excellent  little  work,  which  will  suffice  for  ordinary  use, 
and  can  be  had,  bound  with  Scrivener's  Edition  of  the  Greek 
New  Testament. 

4.  Greenfield, W.  A  Greek  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament-,  in  which 
the  various  senses  of  the  words  are  distinctly  explained  in  En- 
glish, and  authorized  by  references  to  passages  of  Scripture. 
Bagster  and  Sons.    London.    Price  \s.  M. 

A  handy  pocket-lexicon,  also  to  be  had,  bound  with  the  Poly- 
micrian  Greek  New  Testament. 

5.  Grimm,  C.  L.  W.  Lexicon  Grceco-Latinum  in  Libros  Novi  Tes- 
tamenti.    Second  Edition,    Leipsic,  1879. 


90  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Grammatical,  not  theological,  is  very  useful,  especially  for 
younger  students.  An  English  translation  with  many  improve- 
ments by  Prof.  J.  H.  Thayer  will  shortly  appear. 

6.  Melander,  A.  Qrekiskt  o.  Svejiskt  HancUexikon  till  Nya  Testa- 
mentet.    Stockholm,  1867. 

7.  Robinson,  Edward.  A  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New 
Testament.  A  new  edition,  revised  and  in  great  part  rewritten. 
Harper  &  Brothers.    New  York,  1880. 

This  is  a  standard  work,  and  has  not  yet  been  superseded,  but 
it  needs  a  careful  revision,  especially  as  regards  textual  criticism. 

8.  Schirlitz,  S.  C.  Griechish-dentscJiesWoerterbtich  zum  Neuen  Tes- 
tament.   Dritte  Auflage.    Giessen,  1868. 

4.     CONCORDANCES. 

1.  Bruder,  Car.  Herm.  Concordantice  omnium  vocum  Nom  Testa- 
menti  Oraeci.    Third  edition. 

An  indispensible  aid  to  an  exact  study  of  the  Greek  Testament. 

2.  Hudson,  Charles  F.  A  critical  Greek  and  English  Concordance 
of  the  New  Testament,  revised  and  completed  by  Ezra  Abbot. 
Seventh  edition.    Boston  and  London,  1882. 

One  of  the  very  best  manuals  for  constant  use. 

3.  Schmidt,  Erasmus,  A  Greek  Concordance  to  the  New  Testament. 
Bagster  and  Sons.    London.    Price  3.s-.  M. 

Remarkable  for  its  cheapness,  but  it  includes  no  critical  read- 
ings. 

4.  Trommius,  Abr.  Concordantice  GrcecceVersionisLXX.  Interpre- 
tum.    2  Vols.    Amsterdam,  1718. 

5.  Wigram,  George  V.  The  EnglisJunan's  Greek  Concorda7ice  of 
the  New  Testament.    New  York  and  London. 

6.  Young,  Robert.  Analytical  Concordance  to  the  Bible,  on  an  en- 
tirely new  plan,  containing  every  word  in  alphabethical  order, 
arranged  under  its  Hebrew  or  Greek  original,  and  the  literal 
meaning  of  each  and  its  pronunciation.  Exhibiting  about  31 1,000 
references,  marking  30,000  various  readings  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. With  the  latest  information  on  Biblical  Geography  and 
Antiquities,  etc.  Designed  for  the  simplest  reader  of  the  English 
Bible.    Revised  edition.    Edinburgh  and  New  York. 

A  work  that  ought  to  be  in  every  clergyman's  library. 

5.      OTHER  PHILOLOGICAL  HELPS. 

1.  Curtius,  George.  Principles  of  Greek  Etymology.  Translated 
from  the  German.    2  Vols.    London,  1875—6. 

Very  valuable  for  derivation  of  words. 

2.  Jelf  ,W.  E.  A  Grammar  of  the  Greek  Language.  Fourth  edition. 
2  Vols.    Oxford,  1866. 

In  this  work  particular  attention  is  paid  to  the  constructions 
of  the  Greek  Testament. 

3.  Middleton,  Thos.  F.  The  Doctrine  of  the  Greek  Article,  applied 
to  the  criticism  and  illustration  of  the  New  Testament.  New 
edition.    London,  1855. 

4.  Schaff,  Philip.  A  Companion  to  the  Greek  Testament  and  the 
English  Version.    New  York,  1883. 


KNOWLEDGE  NECESSARY  TO  THE  EXPOSITOR.  91 

The  first  chapter  on  The  Language  of  the  New  Testament  (pp. 
1 — 81)  contains  a  most  valuable  sumniary  of  the  whole  subject. 

5.  Schmidt,  J.  H.  Synonymik  der  greich.  Spi^ache.  3  Bd.  Leipsic, 
1876—1879. 

6.  Sophocles,  E.  A.  A  Greek  Lexicon  of  the  Roman  and  Byzantine 
Periods.    Boston,  1870. 

7.  Student's  Analytical  Greek  Testament.  Presenting  at  one  view 
the  Text  of  Scholz  and  a  grammatical  analysis  of  the  verbs,  in 
which  every  occuring  inflection  of  verb  or  participle  is  minutely 
described  and  traced  to  its  proper  root,  etc.  Bagster  and  Sons. 
London. 

An  excellent  help  to  those  who  are  not  proficient  in  Greek. 

8.  Trench,  R.  C.  Synonyms  of  the  New  Testament.  Ninth  edition, 
revised.    London,  1880. 

9.  Webster,  William.  The  Syntax  and  Synonyms  of  the  Greek 
Testament.    London,  1864. 


SECTION  XLV. 

KNOWLEDGE  OF  THINGS    NECESSARY  TO  THE   EXPOSITOR. 
BIBLICAL  ARCHEOLOGY. 

As  the  grammar  and  lexicon  are  indispensable  to  the  un- 
derstanding of  the  words  of  the  Bible,  so  to  a  thorough  com- 
prehension of  the  thijigs  of  the  Bible,  a  knowledge  of  the 
historical,  physical,  geographical,  statistical,  economical,  politi" 
cal  and  social  relations  and  circumstances  under  which  the 
Bible  was  produced,  is  necessary. 

Of  the  antiquities  of  other  nations  which  came  in  contact 
with  the  Hebrews,  either  on  account  of  race  relationship,  such 
as  the  Aramaeans,  Arabians,  Canaanites,  Philistines,  etc.,  or 
through  some  political  combination,  such  as  the  Egyptians, 
Assyrians,  Chaldaeans,  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  we  ad- 
mit only  that  which  has  a  direct  bearing  on  some  scriptural 
passage.  We  see,  therefore,  that  Biblical  Archaeology  is  a 
most  important  aid,  not  only  to  the  expounder,  but  also  to 
every  reader,  of  the  Bible.  "^ 

The  Archaeology  of  the  Bible  is  both  more  difficult  and 
more  interesting  than  that  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans ;  and 
its  interest  is  commensurate  with  its  importance,  f  In  one 
aspect.  Biblical  Archaeology  is  a  preparation  for  Exegesis,  in 
another,  it  is  a  result  of  it. 

*    See  Rueetschl  In  Schaff-Herzog's  Encyclopaedia  under  Archceology. 
t    See  Farrar   In  Alexander-Kltto's  Cyclopgedia  under  Arch(mlogy. 


92  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The  sources  of  this  science   comprise:  I.  Antique   monu- 
ments and  buildings,  plastic  representations,  inscriptions  and 
oins,  and  the  ruins  of  such  cities  as    Baalbec,  Palmyra,  Perse- 
polis,  Nineveh  and  Petra.     Not  only  these,  but  the   temples 
and  palaces  of  Egypt,   Assyria,  Babylonia,   Persia,   Phoenicia 
and  Syria,  with  their  plastic  and  pictorial  representations  are 
also  included.    II.   Written  sources :    i.    Among    the  written 
sources  the  Bible  occupies  the  first  place,  though  a  careful 
discrimination   is  necessary    between    the  various  epochs  in 
which   the   various   books  were   written.      2.    The   works  of 
Philo  and   Josephus  give  excellent   information  with  regard 
to   their   own   times;   but,   for  the   older   periods,  they  must 
be   used  with  caution.     3.    The    Apocryphal   books   of  the 
Old     Testament,    the    Targums,    and    the   Talmud  (consist- 
ing  of  the   Mishna  or   text,   and   the   Gemara   or   commen- 
taries on  it).     The  Talmud,  however,   forms   "a  rich  but  not 
clear   source".    4.    Ancient    Greek    and     Latin    authors,   as 
Xenophon,     Polybius,    Diodorus    Siculus,  Strabo,     Plutarch, 
Pliny,  Tacitus,  and  especially  Herodotus.  5.  Oriental  writers 
as    the    Arabic   geographers   and  natural    philosophers,   the 
religious  books  of  the  Arabs  and  Parsees  (Koran  and  Zend- 
Avesta).     Something  too,  can  be  gleaned  from  writers   who, 
like  Jerome  and  Ephrsem  the  Syrian,  lived  in  Syria.  6.  Books 
of  Travel.     These  have  added  very  largely  to  our  knowledge 
of  Biblical  Archaeology,  because  of  the  stationary  character  ol 
all  oriental  forms  of  civilization.* 

The  material  of  Archaeology  may  be  classified  under  the 
following  heads : 

I.  Biblical  Geography. \  Of  the  importance  of  Sacred 
Geography  to  the  theologian  it  is  not  necessary  to  speak. 
Locality  has  given  a  peculiar  tone  and  coloring  to  the  whole 
literature  and  language  of  the  Bible.  The  historical  interest 
of  Sacred  Geography,  though  belonging  in  various  degrees  to 
Mesopotamia,'^Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  Italy,  is,  like 
Sacred  History  itself,]  concentrated  on  the  peninsula  of  Sinai 
and  on  Palestine.  But  this  science  was  not  reduced  to  a  system 


♦  See  Articles  by  Rueetschi  and  Farrar,  already  referred  to. 
t  See  a  most  valuable  article  on  Geography  by  J.  Leslie  Porter  In  Alexander- 
Kltto's  Opclopcedia. 


KNOWLEDGE  NECESSARY  TO  THE  EXPOSITOR.  93 

until  a  comparatively  recent  time.  To  Samuel  Bochart  (1599 — 
1667),  a  French  Protestant  clergyman,  belongs  the  honor  of 
writing  the  first  systematic  work  on  Biblical  Geography.  His 
Geographia  Sacra  is  a  work  of  vast  and  varied  learning,  from 
which,  as  from  a  storehouse,  all  subsequent  writers  on  Biblical 
Geography  and  Ethnography  have  drawn  freely.  In  17 14, 
Hadrian  Reland  U676 — 17 18)  published  his  Palestina,  which 
remains  to  this  day  the  standard  work  on  the  geography  of 
Palestine.  Dr  Edward  Robinson's  Biblical  Researches  in 
Palestine,  and  in  the  Adjacent  Regions  (3  vols.  Boston,  1867), 
opened  a  new  era  in  Biblical  Geography.  Though  the  most 
valuable  contribution  that  modern  learning  and  enterprise  have 
made  to  our  knowledge  in  this  department,  it  is  nevertheless 
neither  complete  nor  .systematic;  it  is  only  a  book  of  travels, 
with  most  important  historical  and  geographical  illustrations. 
Carl  Ritter's  Complete  Geography  of  Palestine  and  the  Sinaiiic 
Peninsula  (translated  and  adapted  to  the  use  of  biblical  students 
by  W.  L.  Gage.  4  vols.  Edinburgh,  1866)  aims  at  system  and 
completeness,  but  it  is  too  diffuse.  It  gives  a  resume  of  every- 
thing that  has  been  written  on  Bible  lands.  To  enumerate  all 
the  books  written  on  Bible  lands  would  be  practically  useless. 
A  carefully  selected  list  of  the  more  important  works  bearing 
on  the  subject  of  Sacred  Geography,  in  addition  to  the  works 
already  mentioned,  will  be  given  in  the  list  at  the  end  of  this 
section. 

A  special   part  of  Biblical  Geography  is  Biblical  Topogra- 
phy, an  exact  and  scientific  description   in   minute   detail  of 
certain    places   or  sites  in    Bible  lands,  e.  g.,  Jerusalem,  the 
Temple,  etc. 

2.  Natural  History  of  the  Bible  (Physica  Sacra).  This 
science  is  most  intimately  connected  with  Biblical  Geography. 
The  importance  of  securing  a  vivid  idea  of  the  natural  (geolo- 
gical, topographical,  and  climatic)  conditions  of  a  country 
which  has  left  such  a  remarkable  impress  upon  the  language 
of  the  Bible,  and  upon  the  religious  thought  of  the  Hebrews,  is 
self-evident.  By  the  Natural  History  of  the  Bible  we  under- 
stand not  only  a  systematic  survey  of  the  natural  productions 
of  Palestine,  but  also  and  chiefly,  an  enumeration  of  the  peculiar 


94  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPCEDIA. 

features  of  their  origin,  growth,  continuation,  cultivation  and 
use.  To  this  general  subject  belong  the  departments  of  i) 
Physical  Geography  (climate,  seasons,  winds,  rivers  and  lakes, 
fountains  and  wells,  mountains,  valleys,  caverns,  plains,  deserts, 
the  fertility  of  the  Holy  Land,  its  productions,  etc.),  2)  Botany, 
3)  Zoology,  and   4)  Mineralogy  of  the  Bible. 

3.  Biblical  Ethnography.  This  science  includes  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  Domestic  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  and  of  other 
nations  incidentally  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  It  involves 
the  study  i)  of  man's  relation  to  nature  (agriculture,  herding 
cattle,  hunting,  and  fishing)  and  of  his  modes  of  preparing 
the  raw  materials  provided  by  nature  for  his  use  ( dwellings, 
clothing,  ornaments,  food,  utensils,  handicrafts,  navigation)  and 
2)  of  man's  relations  to  society  (social  customs,  marriage 
customs,  domestic  hfe,  general  intercourse,  hospitality,  amuse- 
ments, journeys,  commerce,  relations  with  strangers,  war, 
slavery,  diseases  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  treatment  of  the 
dead,  funeral  rites). 

4.  Political  A7itiquities  of  the  Jews.  Here  we  treat  of  the 
different  forms  of  government  and  the  political  state  of  the  He- 
brews i)  under  Patriarchs ;  2)  Moses ;  3)  Judges ;  4)  Kings  ; 
5)  during  the  Babylonish  captivity  ;  6)  after  their  return  to 
Palestine ;  7)  under  the  Maccabees  ;  8)  Herodian  Family ; 
9)  Roman  Procurators;  of  the  courts  of  judicature  (Jewish  and 
Roman),  legal  proceedings  and  criminal  law  of  the  Jews 
(against  God,  parents  and  magistrates,  property,  person  etc.), 
of  the  punishments  mentioned  in  Scripture,  of  the  modes  of 
computing  time,  of  tributes  and  taxes,  of  covenants,  contracts 
and  oaths,  of  the  laws  respecting  strangers,  the  aged,  blind, 
deaf  and  poor,  of  the  military  affairs  of  the  Jews  and  other 
nations  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  etc. 

5.  Sacred  Antiquities  of  the  Jews:^  Here  are  discussed 

i)  The  sacred  places  (the  tabernacle,  the  temple,  the  high 
places  or  oratories  of  the  Jews,  the  synagogues)  ; 


*  Compare  An  Introduction  to  the  Critical  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  Edited  by  Thomas  Hartwell  Home,  John  Ajre  and  Samuel  Prldeaux 
Tregelles.  Twelfth  edition.  London,  1869.  (No  change  has  been  made  in  later 
editions). 


KNOWLEDGE  NECESSARY  TO  THE  EXPOSITOR.  95 

2)  The  sacred  and  theocratic  persons  (the  Levites,  the 
priesthood,  the  high  priest,  Judges,  prophets,  Scribes,  Nazarites, 
Rechabites,  proselytes,  Hellenists,  etc.) ; 

3)  The  sacred  usages  (I.  Offerings  of  blood,  a)  occasional, 
i)  burnt-ofterings,  2)  peace-offerings,  3)  sin-offerings,  4)  tres- 
pass-offerings ;  d)  national,  i)  the  daily,  2)  weekly,  3)  monthly, 
4)  yearly  sacrifices;  II.  Unbloody  offerings;  or  meat-offer- 
ings, which  were  taken  ft-om  the  vegetable  kingdom,  meal, 
bread,  cakes,  ears  of  grain,  oil  and  frankincense;  III.  Drink- 
offerings,  which  accompanied  both  bloody  and  unbloody 
sacrifices;  IV.  Other  oblations,   a)  ordinary,    i)  shew-bread, 

2)  incense;  d)  voluntary,  i)  vow  of  consecration;  2)  vow  of 
engagement;  c)  prescribed,  i)  first-fruits  of  corn,  2)  first-born 
of  man  and  beast,    3)  tithes) ; 

4)  The  sacred  seasons  i)    the  Sabbath,  2)  the  new  moons, 

3)  the  annual  festivals,  a)  passover,  d)  pentecost,  c')  feast  of 
tabernacles,  d)  feast  of  trumpets,  e)  day  of  atonement,  and 
later/)  the  feast  of  Purim,  g)  the  feast  of  dedication,  and  4) 
other  stated  festivals,  a)  the  Sabbatical  year,  and  d)  the  year  of 
Jubilee) ; 

5)  The  sacred  obligations  and  duties  of  the  Jews  (of  vows, 
of  their  prayers  and  fasts,  purifications,  etc. ; 

6)  The  corruptions  of  religion  among  the  Jews  (of  idolatry, 
idols,  divination,  magic,  of  the  Jewish  sects,  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament,  Pharisees,  Sadducees,  Essenes,  Samaritans, 
Herodians,  Galileans,  Zealots,  Sicarii,  etc.). 

6.  Literature^  Science  and  Arts  cultivated  by  the  Jews. 
Under  this  topic  we  treat  of  their  schools,  their  method  of 
teaching,  of  the  studies  of  the  Jews  (history,  poetry,  oratory, 
ethics,  physics,  arithmetic,  astronomy,  astrology,  surveying, 
mechanic  arts,  geography),  of  the  art  of  writing,  engraving,  of 
music  and  musical  instruments,  etc. 


SELECT  LITERATURE 

OF 

BIBLICAL  ARCHEOLOGY. 

I.      GENERAL  ARCH^OLOGICAL  WORKS  EMBRAQING  DICTIONARIES 
OF  THE  BIBLE. 

1.  Barnum,  Samuel  W.  A  Comprehensive  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 
Mainly  abridged  from  Dr.  William  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible,  but  comprising  important  additions  and  improvements, 
and  illustrated  with  five  hundred  maps  and  engravings.  Pp. 
1219.    New  York,  1867. 

2.  Bible  Edueator,  The.  Edited  by  E.  H.  Plumptre.  Four  volumes 
in  two.  London  and  New  York. 

3.  Eadie,  John.  A  Biblical  Cyclopaedia  ;  or,  Dictionary  of  Eastern 
antiquity,  geography,  natural  history,  sacred  annals,  and  bio- 
graphy, theology,  and  biblical  literature,  illustrative  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments.  Pp.  690.  London,  1870. 

4.  Fairbairn,  Patrick.  The  Imperial  Bible  Dictionary,  historical, 
biographical,  geographical,  and  doctrinal;  including  the  natural 
history,  antiquities,  manners,  customs,  religious  rites  and 
ceremonies  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  and  an  account  of 
the  several  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  2  vols. 
Pp.  1007,  1151.  Edinburgh  and  London. 

5.  Herzog,  Plitt  and  Hauck.  Real-Encyklopcedie  fuer  Protest. 
Theologie  und  Kirche.  Second  revised  edition  in  15  vols. 
Leipsic,  1877—85. 

6.  Kitto,  John.  Cyclopcedia  of  Biblical  Literature.  Third  edi- 
tion greatly  enlarged  and  improved,  edited  by  William  Lind- 
say Alexander.  3  vols.  London  and  Philadelphia,  1866. 

Very  valuable,  especially  in  its  archaeological  articles. 

7.  M'Clintock  and  Strong.  Cyclopcedia  of  Biblical  Theology  and 
Ecclesiastical  Literature.  10  vols.  New  York. 

8.  Peloubet,  F.  N.  and  M.  A.  A  DiGtio7iary  of  the  Bible,  com- 
prising its  antiquities,  biography,  geography,  natural  history 
and  literature.  (A  revision  of  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible). 
Pp.  818.  Philadelphia,  1884. 

A  most  excellent  work,  at  a  low  price. 

9.  Kiehm,  Ed.  G.  Aug.  ffandworterbuch  des  Biblisches  Alter- 
turns  fuer  gebildete  Bibelleser.  With  many  illustrations.  Biele- 
feld and  Leipsic,  1875—84. 

A  valuable  work,  in  which  the  editor  has  been  assisted  by 
such  well-known  scholars  as  Beyschlag,  Delitzsch,  Ebers,  Klei- 
nert,  Schrader,  etc. 

10.  Schaff,  Philip.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  including  biography, 
natural  history,  geography,  topography,  archaeology,  and  lite- 
rature. With  12  colored'  maps  and  over  400  illustrations. 
Third  revised  edition.  Philadelphia  and  New  York. 


BIBLICAL  ARCHAEOLOGY.  97 

11.  Schaff-Herzog.  A  ReUgiom  Encyclopedia,  or  Dictionary  of 
Biblical,  Historical,  Doctrinal,  and  Practical  Theology.  3  vols. 
New  York. 

This  work  ought  to  be  in  the  hands  of  every  clergyman. 

12.  Smith,  William.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Comprising  its 
antiquities,  biography,  geography,  and  natur;il  history.  Re- 
vised and  edited  by  II.  B.  Hackett  and  Ezra  Abbot.  4  vols. 
New  York,  1873. 

A  library  in   itself,   and    valuable  especially  on  account   of 
the  careful  selection  of  the  Bibhography. 

13.  Winer,  George  Benedict.  Bihlisclies  Beal-Worterbuch.  Dritte 
sehr  verbesserte  und  vermehrte  Autlage.  Leipsic,  1847. 

A  work  that  has  not  as  yet  been  superseded,  an  almost  per- 
fect encyclopaedia  of  biblical  knowledge. 

2.      SPECIAL   WORKS   ON   BIBLICAL  ARCHEOLOGY. 

1.  Conder,  F.  R.  A  Handbook  to  the  Bible.  Being  a  guide  to 
the  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  derived  from  ancient  monu- 
ments and  modern  exploration.    London  and  New  York. 

2.  Ewald,  Heinrich.  The  Antiquities  of  Israel.  Translated  from 
the  German  by  H.  S.  Solly.  London,  1876. 

A  valuable  work. 

3.  Jahn,  John.  Biblical  Aichceology.  Translated  from  the  Latin 
by  T.  C.  LTpham.  New  York,  1863. 

This  work,  however,  has  been  superseded. 

4.  Keil,  Karl  Friedrich.  Handbuch  der  biblisclien  Archceoloyie. 
2  Auflage.  Frankfurt,  1875. 

An   English    translation   of   this    standard   work    in     two 
volumes  is  announced  by  the  Clark   Brothers   of  Edinburgh. 

5.  Nevin,  John  W.  A  Nummary  of  Biblical  Antiquities.  For 
the  use  of  Schools,  Bible  Classes  and  Families.  Philadelphia, 
1873. 

Popular,  but  of  permanent  value. 

3.  SACRED  ANTIQUITIES. 

1.  B^ehr,  K.  C.  AY.  T.  Symbolik  des  Mos.  Kultus.  2  Bande.  Hei- 
delberg, 1837,  39.  Band  I  in  zweiter  Auflage,  1874. 

Very  suggestive. 

2.  Edersheim,  A.  The  Temple.  Its  ministry  and  services  as  they 
were  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ.  London,  1874. 

3.  Kurtz,  J.  H.  Sacrificial  Worship  of  the  Old  Testament.  Transla- 
ted from  the  German.  Edinburgh,  1863. 

A  work  that  ought  to  be  in  the  library  of  every  clergyman. 

4.  BIBLICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Barrows,  E.  P.  Sacred  Geography  and  Antiquities.  With  maps 
and  illustrations.  New  York. 

2.  Bible  Atlas,  The,  of  Maps  and  Plans  to  illustrate  the  Geography 
and  Topography  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  the 
Apocrypha,  with  explanatory  notes  by  Samuel  Clarke.  Also  a 
complete  index  of  the  Geographical  names  in  the  English  Bible, 
by  George  Grove.  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge. 
London,  1868. 


98  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

3.  Burt,  X.  C.  The  Laiid  and  its  Story :  or,  the  Sacred  Historical 
Geography  of  Palestine.  Illustrated  with  numerous  maps  and 
engravings.  Xew  York,  1869. 

4.  Coleman,  Lyman.  An  Historical  Text-book  and  Atlas  of  Bibli- 
cal Qeography.  Philadelphia,  1877. 

5.  Conder,  C.  K.,  and  Kitschener.  Map  of  Western  Palestine. 
In  26  sheets.  London,  1880. 

The  most  scientiiic  and  accurate  map  that  has  as  yet  appeared, 
published  under  the  auspices  of  the  Palestine  Exploration  So- 
ciety. 

6.  Kiepert,  PI.  Neue  Wandkarte  von  Paldstina.  Size  49x75 
inches.  Berlin,  1854. 

A  most  excellent  map,  recommended  by  many  Biblical 
Scholars. 

7.  Kitto,  John.  Scripture  Lands  described  in  a  series  of  Historical, 
Geographical,  and  Topographical  Sketches.  H.  G.  Bohn.  Lon- 
don, 1850. 

8.  Library  Atlas,  The,  of  Modern,  Historical,  and  Classical  Geo- 
graphy. Consisting  of  100  maps,  etc.  (Putman).  New  York,  1875. 

9.  Menke,  Theo.  Bibelatlas  in  acht  Bldttern.  Gotha,  1868. 

Very  valuable. 

10.  Palmer,  E.  H.  The  Desert  of  the  Exodus.  Journeys  on  foot  in 
the  wilderness  of  the  forty  years'  wanderings,  undertaken  in 
connection  with  the  ordinance  survey  of  Sinai  and  the  Palestine 
exploration  fund.  With  maps  and  numerous  illustrations  from 
photographs  and  drawings  taken  on  the  spot  by  the  Sinai  Sur- 
vey Expedition,  and  C.  F.  Tyrwhitt  Drake.  New  York,  1872. 

A  most  valuable  and  interesting  work. 

11.  Eaaz,  A.  Wall  Map  of  Palestine.  Photo-lithographed  from  a 
Relief.  English  lettering.    Size  32x54  inches.  New  York. 

The  plastic  effect  of  this  map  is  surprising.  It  appears  to 
the  eye  to  be  an  actual  relief,  and  it  not  only  answers  the 
same  purpose,  but  is  preferable  because  of  its  cheapness,  dura- 
bility and  more  convenient  material.  It  ought  to  be  ins_every 
library. 

12.  Stanley,  Arthur  P.  Sinai  and  Palestine,  in  connection  with 
their  history.  New  edition,  with  maps  and  plans.   New  York. 

The  Standard  work.  No  clergyman  can  afford  to  be  without 
this  work. 

13.  Tobler,  Titus.  Bibliographia  Geographica  Palcestince. 
Zunachst  kritische  Uebersicht  gedruckter  und  ungedruckter 
Beschreibungen  der  Reisen  ins  heilige  Land.  Pp.  270.  Leipsic, 
1867. 

14.  Van  de  Velde,  C.  W.  M.  Map  of  the  Holy  Land.  8  Sheets.  Sec- 
ond edition.  London,  1865. 

One  of  the  very  best  maps  published. 

15.  Wyld.  J.  A  Scripttire  Atlas,  containing  30  colored  maps,  in 
which  will  be  found,  not  only  the  places  of  well-defined  situa- 
tion, but  the  other  localities  of  historic  interest  mentioned 
throughout  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  according  to  the  supposition 
of  the  best  authors.  With  a  Geographical  Index.  Bagster  and 
Sons.  London. 


BIBLICAL   ARCHEOLOGY.  99 

5.      BIBLICAL  TOPOGRAPHY. 

1.  Besant,  Walter,  and  Palmer,  E.  H.  Jerusalem,  the  City  of 
Herod  and  Saladin.    London,  1871. 

2.  Conder.  C.  R.  Tent  work  in  Palestine.  A  record  of  discovery 
and  adventure.  Published  for  the  Committee  of  the  Palestine 
Exploration  Society.  2  vols.  London  and  l^ew  York,  1878. 

3.  Tobler,  T.    Bethlehem  in  Palastina.    St.  Gallen,  1849. 

4.   Nazareth  in  Palastina.    Berlin,  1868. 

5 Tojmgrajjhie  von  Jerusalem  und  seinen    TJmgebun- 

gen.    2  Bde.  Berlin,  1853—4.    Accurate  and  scientific. 

6.  Tristram,  H.  11  The  Topography  of  the  Holy  Land.  A  suc- 
cinct account  of  all  the  places,  ruins,  and  mountains  of  the 
land  of  Israel,  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  etc.  London  and  New 
York. 

7.  Warren,  Charles.  Underground  Jerusalem.  An  account  of  some 
of  the  principal  difficulties  encountered  in  its  exploration  and 
the  results  obtained.    London,    1876. 

8.  Williams,  Geo.  The  Holy  City.  Historical,  topographical,  and 
antiquarian  notices  of  Jerusalem.  Second  edition,  with  addi- 
tions, etc.    2  vols.  London,  1849. 

9.  Wilson,  Charles  W.,  and  Warren,  Charles.  The  Recovery  of 
Jerusalem.  A  narrative  of  Exploration  and  Discovery  in  the 
citv  and  the  Holy  Land.  Edited  by  W.  Morrison.  New  York, 
1871. 

6.   WOKKS  OF  TRAVEL  AND  EXPLORATION. 

1.  Biedeker  K.  Palestine  and  Syria.  Handbook  for  Travelers,  with 
18  maps,  43  plans,  one  Panorama  of  Jerusalem,  and  10  views. 
Leipsic  and  London,  1876.  Second  German  edition,  revised 
and  enlarged.    Leipsic,  1880. 

2.  -- Egypt  and  Sinai.    Leipsic,  1878. 

3.  Bartlett,  S.  C.  From  Egypt  to  Palestine,  through  Sinai,  the 
Wilderness,  and  the  South  Country;  observations  of  a  Journey 
made  with  special  reference  to  the  history  of  the  Israelites, 
with  maps  and  illustrations.    New  York,  1879. 

4.  Ebers,  G.  Durch  Qosen  zu7n  Sinai.  2te  Auflage.  Leipsic, 
1881. 

5.  Layard,  A.  H.  Nirieveh  and  its  Remains.  2  vols.  London, 
1849. 

6.  Lynch,  W.  F.  Narrative  of  tJie  United  States  Expedition  to 
the  river  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea.    Philadelphia,  1849. 

7.  MacGregor,  J.  The  Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan,  Nile,  and  Red 
Sea.    London  and  New  York,  1870. 

8.  Merrill,  Selah.  East  of  the  Jordan.  A  record  of  travel  and 
observation  in  the  countries  of  Moab,  Gilead,  and  Bashan 
during  the  years  1875—77.    New  Edition.  New  York,  1883. 

9.  Porter,  J.  L.  The  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan,  and  Syria's  Holy 
Places.    New  York,  1873. 

10  Five   years  in    Damascus;   with  travels  to  Pal- 

"  myra,  Lebanon,    and  other    Scripture  Sites.    With  Maps  and 
Illustrations.    London,  1870. 


UX)  THEOLOGICAL    ENGYCLOPCEDIA. 

11.  Porter,  J.  L.  Handbook  for  Travelers  in  ^yria  and  Palestine. 
London,  1875. 

The  works  of  Prof.  Porter  are  especially  valuable.  He  has 
also  written  quite  extensively  for  the  well  knoAvn  Bible  Dictio- 
naries of  Smith  and  Kitto,  already  mentioned. 

12.  Rawlinson,  George.  The  Five  Great  MonarcJiies  of  the  An- 
f-ient- Eastern  world;  or,  The  History.  Geography,  and  Anti- 
quities of  Chaldiea,  Assyria,  Babylon,  Media  and  Persia. 
Collected  and  illustrated  from  ancient  and  modern  sources. 
In  three  volumes.  With  maps  and  Illustrations.  Dodd,  Mead 
and  Co.  New  York. 

13. History  of  Anrdent  Egypt.    In  two  volumes.  The  same. 

New  York. 

These  standard  works,  once  so  expensive,  can  now  be  bought 
at  very  cheap  rates. 

14.  Schaff,  Philip.  Through  Bible  Lands:  Notes  of  travel  in 
Egypt,  the  Desert,  and  Palestine.    New  York  and  London. 

15.  Tristram,  H.  B.  The  Land  of  Moah.  Travels  and  discoveries  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan.  London  and 
New  York,  1873. 

7.      NATURAL   HISTORY    AND   RHYSICAL   GEOaRAPHY. 

1.  Bochart,  Samuel.    Hierozoicon.    London,  1663. 

In  this  work  the  author,  with  immense  learning,  treats  of 
all  the  animals,  quadrupeds,  birds,  reptiles,  and  insects  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible. 

2.  Robinson,  Edward.  Physical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land. 
Boston,  1865. 

3.  Tristram,  H.  B.  The  Natural  History  of  the  Bible.  Being  a 
review  of  the  physic;d  geography,  geology,  and  meteorology  of 
the  Holy  Land;  with  a  description  of  every  animal  and  plant 
mentioned  in  Holy  Scripture.  London  and  New  York.  xVn 
exellent  manual  for  popular  use. 

4 The  Land  of  Israel.    A  Journal  of  travels  in 

Palestine,  undertaken   with  special  reference  to  its  physical 

character.    London  and  New  York. 
5.    Wood,  J.  G.  Bible  Animals;  being  a  description  of  every  living 

creature  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  from  the  ape  to  the  coral. 

With  Illustrations.  New  York,  1872. 

8.      DOMESTIC   ANTIQI^ITIES. 

1.  Delitzsch,  Franz.  Jeivish  Artisan  Life  in  the  time  of  our  Lord. 
London  and  New  York. 

2.  Edersheim,  A.  Sketches  of  Jewish  Social  Life  in  the  days  of 
Christ.    London. 

3.  Fish,  Henry  C.  Bible  Lands.  Illustrated.  A  Pictorial  Hand- 
book of  the  Antiquities  and  Modern  Life  of  all  sacred  Countries, 
etc.    Hartford,  1876. 

4.  Thompson,  W.  M.  The  Land  and  the  Book;  or  Biblical  Illustra- 
tions drawn  from  the  manners  and  customs,  the  scenes  and 
scenery  of  the  Holv  Land.  New  edition,  illustrated.  2  vols. 
New  York,  1880—83. 


BIBLICAL  ISAGOGICS.  101 

5.  Van  Lerinep,  H.J.  Bible  Lands;  their  modern  customs  and 
manners  illustrative  of  Scripture.    New  York,  1875. 

9.      POLITICAL    ANTIQUITIES. 

1.  Home,  Thomas  Hart  well.  An  Introdmtion  to  the  critical 
study  and  knoioledye  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  4  vols.  Twelfth 
edition.    London. 

The  third  volume  contains  a  very  full  presentation  of  the 
Political  Antiquities  of  the  Jews. 

2.  Michaelis,  John  D.  Commentaries  on  the  Laios  of  Moses.  4 
vols.    London,  1814. 

Valued  for  the  perspicurity,  wide  views,  and  historical 
illustrations  wherewith  the  author  has  so  learnedly  investigated 
the  whole  subject. 

10.      LITERATURE,   SCIENCE   AND    ART. 

1.  Herder,  J.  (t.  The  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry.  Translated  from 
the  German  bv  President  James  Marsh.  2  vols.  Burlington, 
Yt.,  1833. 

2.  Lowth,  Robert.  Lectures  07i  the  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebretos. 
London  and  Andover. 

3.  Stainer,  J.    Music,  of  the  Bible.    London,  1879. 

4.  Tavlor,  Isaac.  The  Spirit  of  Hebrew  poetrij.  Philadelphia, 
1863. 

5.  Wright,  W.  A.  See  his  Articles  on  Hebrew  Poetry,  Music,  etc., 
in  Smith's  Bible  Dictionary  (4  vols.). 

SECTION     XLVI. 

BIBLICAL  ISAGOGICS. 
(INTRODUCTION   AND  CANONICS). 

The  Bible  is  a  collection  of  writings  of  various  periods 
from  the  hands  of  different  authors,  written  under  a  wide  range 
of  circumstances,  and  gradually  coming  into  being.  To  under- 
stand this  precious  Book  thoroughly,  it  is  necessary  to  know 
accurately  the  facts  connected  with  the  origin  and  history  of 
the  collection  as  a  whole,  and  of  the  separate  parts.  This  is 
the  object  of  the  doctrine  or  history  of  the  Canon,  or  the  science 
of  Biblical  Introduction, — Isagogics  in  the  stricter  sense. 

Isagogics  again  is  divided  into  Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament,  and  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament;  also  into 
General  Isagogics  or  Introduction,  and  Special  Isagogics. 

The  General  Isagogics  or  Introduction  treats  of  the  rise  of 
the  Canon,  and  of  the  various  facts  connected  with  it ;  the 
history  of  manuscripts,  editions,  translations,  and  various  similar 
works  connected  with  the  Holy   Scripture.     Special  Introduc- 


102  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

tion,  on  the  contrary  (in  partial  connection  with  Criticism), 
has  to  do  with  the  authenticity  and  integrity  of  the  particular 
writings, — with  the  persons  of  their  authors,  with  the  aim, 
plan,  form  and  style  of  their  works,  and  with  the  time,  place 
and  circumstances  of  their  composition.* 

Widelj'  different  opinions  exist  respectingf  the  idea  and  treat- 
ment of  this  branch  of  theological  study.  Some  have  mantained 
that  Isagogics  comprehends  everything  that  is  necessary  for  the 
Interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  i.  e., 

I.  The  nature  and  importance,  of  the  Bible,  together  with  the 
history  of  the  canon,  or  Canonics,  which  is  divided  into  a)  Abstract 
Canonics  (authenticity,  credibility  and  genuineness);  6)  Concrete 
Canonies,  or  what  is  usually  termed  Introduction  or  Isagogics  in 
the  more  limited  sense,  which  is  again  divided  into  1)  General  and 
Special,  and  into  2)  Old  and  Xew  Testament  Canonics; 

II.  The  Compass  of  the  Bible,  or  the  genuineness  of  its  matter 
(Bil)lical  Criticism); 

III.  Its  language  and  contents  (Hermeneutics). 
Encyclopiedia  is  concerned  with  the  material  of  Introduction 

only  in  so  far  as  it  is  necessary  to  give  preliminary  information 
with  regard  to  its  general  character. 

The  best  work  of  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament  is  the  ad- 
mirable treatise  of  Keil.t  This  is  a  perfect  thesaurus  of  all  critical 
matters  pertaining  to  the  Old  Testament,  and  being  written  from 
a  conservative  standpoint,  it  cannot  be  too  highly  recommended. 
As  it  is  a  good  way  to  become  acquianted  with  the  scope  of  a  sul)- 
ject  by  knowing  how  an  author  discusses  it,  we  append  here  a 
brief  synopsis  of  Keil. 

§  1 — 3.    The  Problem,  Division  and  Literature  of  the  Subject. 

PART   FIRST. 

Origin  and  Genuineness  of  the  Canonical    Writings  of   the  Old 

Testament. 

1.  Of  the  Old  Testament  Literature  iu  general. 

§  4—8.    Rise,    growth,    prime,    and    decay    of    the    Hebrew 

Literature. 
§  9—18.   The  languages  of  the  Old  Testament. 

2.  Origin  and  Genuineness  of  the  individual  books. 
§  19—39.    The  Five  Books  of  Moses. 

§  40—105.   The  Prophetical  writings. 

a)    The  Prophetical  Historical  Books. 

(Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings). 
6)    The  Prophetical  Predictive  Books. 

aa)  The  Greater  Prophets. 

(Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel). 

bb)  The  Twelve  Minor  Prophets. 

(Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Jonah,  Micah,Nahum, 

*    See  Manuscript  Lectures  of  Dr.  Krauth. 

t  Keil,  Karl  Friedrich.  Mamml  of  Historico- Critical  Introduction  to  the  Cano- 
nical Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament.  Translated  from  the  second  German  edition, 
with  supplementary  notes  from  Bleek  and  others,  by  George  C.  M.  Douglas.  D.  D- 
2  vols.  Pp.  529,  43.5.    T.  &  T.  Clark.  Edinburgh.  1869. 


BIBLICAL  ISAGOGIOS.  lOH 

Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi). 
§  106—152.  The  Ha.giogfrapha,  or  Holy  Writings. 
a)    The  Poetical  writings. 

(Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job,  Canticles,  Lamentations,  Ec- 
clesiastes). 
6)    The  Book  of  Daniel. 

c)  The  Historical  Books  of  the  Hagiographa. 
(Ruth,  Chronicles,  Ezra,  iSTehemiah,  Esther). 
Under  each  separate  book  of  the  Old  Testament,  Keil  discusses 
most  fully  all  critical  questions  arising  in  its  study,  e.  g.,  name, 
division,  contents  and  object;  authenticity,  genuineness,  unity  and 
composition;  date,  author  and  style;  sources,  historical  character, 
etc. 

3.    How  the  Old  Testament  Canon  originated. 
§  153.    Collections  of  the  Sacred  writings  at  times  earlier  than 
the  Exile. 

§  154, 155.  Collection  of  the  Books  after  the  Exile.  Close  of 
the  Canon. 

§  156.  Names,  divisions,  and  enumerations  of  the  Scriptures  of 
the  Old  Testament. 

PART  SECOND, 

History  of  the  Transmission  of  the  Old  Testament. 

1.  Preservation  and  Cultivation  of  Hebrew  Philology. 

§  157—159.  The  Philological  cultivation  of  the  Hebrew  lang- 
uage among  the  Jews. 

§  160, 161.  The  study  of  Hebrew  among  the  Christians  down 
to  the  present  time. 

§  162.    Aids  to  the  investigation  of  the  Hebrew  Language. 

2.  Propagation  and  Diffusion  of  the  Canon  of  the  Old 

Testament. 
a)  Preservation  and  propagation  of  the  Hebrew  Canon  by 
manuscripts. 
§  163—169.    History  of  the  External  form  of  the  text  of  the 

Old  Testament. 
§  170—173.    The  Manuscripts  of  the  Old  Testament. 

6)  Diffusion  of  the  Old  Testament  by  means  of  Ancient 
Versions. 
§  174—185.    Creek  Tranlations. 
§  186—196.    Oriental  Translations. 

(Chaldee,  Syriac,  Arabic,  Samaritan.  Persian,  etc.). 
§  197—200.     The    Latin    Vulgate,    and  the  Versions  derived 
from  it. 

3.  The  Critical  Treatment  of  the  Old  Testament. 

§  201—208.    History  of  the  Criticism  of  the  Unprinted  text. 
§  209—211.    History  of  the  Printed  Text. 

4.  The  Ecclesiatical  Authority  and  Treatment  of  the  Old 

Testaments. 
a)  The  Doctrine  of  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament. 
§  212 — 215.    History  of  the  Old  Testament  Canon  among  the 
Jews. 

§  216—218.  History  of  the  Old  Testament  Canon  in  the  Chri- 
stian Church. 

6)  The  Hermeneutical  Treatment  of  the  Old  Testament. 
§  219—222.    Among  the  Jew^s. 
§  223—225.    In  the  Christian  Church. 


104  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Of  works  of  "Introduction  to  the  New  Testament"  the  well- 
known  work  of  Reuss  takes  very  high  rank  *  Though  we  cannot 
recommend  it  as  a  safe  guide  to  the  student,  for  the  author  cannot 
be  regarded  as  orthodox,  much  less  evangelical,  still  Reuss  of  Stras- 
burg  is  one  of  the  ablest  Biblical  scholars  of  the  age,  and  it  would 
be  difficult  to  find  another  work  which  contains  so  much  informa- 
tion concerning  all  questions  arising  in  a  critical  study  of  the  New 
Testament.  To  indicate  the  richness  of  this  field  of  investigation 
we  here  append  a  condensed  outline  of  this  work. 

INTRODUCTION. 

§  1 — 23.  Definition,  division,  method,  history  and  literature 
of  the  science. 

BOOK   FIRST. 

History  of  the  Origin  of  the  New   Testament  Writings. 

History  of  the  Literature. 
§  24 — 72.    Preliminary  History. 

(The  disciples  and  the  early  Church.    The  language  of  the 
New  Testament.  The  Pauline  Gospel.  Opposing  tendencies). 
§  73 — 235.  Period  of  the  Apostolic  Literature. 
a)  Didactic  Literature. 
(Pauline   Epistles.     Catholic    Epistles.    The    Apocalypse. 

Early  Christian  Poetry). 
h)  Historical  Literature. 

(Gospel  tradition.  Written  records.  The  three  Synoptists. 
Original  documents.  Gospels  of  Mark,  Matthew,  and 
Luke.    Retrospect  of  the  historical  literature). 

c)  Theological  treatment  of  the  Gospel  History. 
(Character  and  doctrine  of  the  Gospel  of  John.    Plan  and 

purpose.    The  three  Epistles  of  John.    Retrospect). 

d)  Last  literary  remains  of  the  Apostolic  Age. 
(Epistle  of  Jude.    Of  Barnabas.   Of  Clement). 

§  236—280.  Period  of  the  Pseudo- Apostolic  Literature. 
a)  Transition. 

(Additions  to  the  Gospels.  Transmission  and  corruption  of 
tradition). 

h)  Pseudepigrapha. 

(The  Acts  of  Peter.  Clementines.  Testaments  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs.  Gospel  of  Nicodemus.  Gnostic  Gospels.  Catholic 
Gospels  of  the  Childhood.  Epistles  of  Jesus.  Apocalypses.  The 
Apostolic  Constitutions.  Church  ordinances,  liturgies  and  laws. 
Retrospect). 

BOOK    SECOND. 

History  of  tlie  Collection  of  the  New  Testament  Writings. 

History  of  the  Canon. 
%  281 — 294.    Preliminary  History. 

(Edification  of  the  Church  from  the  Old  Testament.  From 
tradition.  Gradual  Circulation  of  the  Apostolic  Writings.  Begin- 
ning of  theological  use  of  them). 

*  Reuss,  Eduard  W.  E.  History  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  of  the  New  Testament. 
Translated  from  the  fifth  revised  and  enlarged  German  edition,  with  numerous 
bibliographical  additions  by  Edward  L.  Houghton.  '2  vols.  Boston,  1884. 

Especially  rich  in  Its  literature. 


BIBLICAL   ISAG0GIC8,  105 

i^  295—381.  Period  of  Liturgico-Traditional  Principle. 

(Increasing  authority  of  the  Apostolic  Writings.  Earliest  Col- 
lections. Division,  arrangement  and  names.  Dissimilarity  and 
enrichment.  vSyrian  Canon.  Muratorian  Canon.  Origen  and  the 
witnesses  of  his  century.  Eusebius.  Early  Catalogues  of  the  Orient. 
Laodicean  Canon.  The  Canon  in  theAYestern  Churcli.  Carthaginian 
Canon.  Comparison  of  the  Canon  in  different  churches.  Sects. 
Fifth  to  ninth  Century.  Tenth  and  eleventh.  Twelfth  and  follow- 
ing.   Fifteenth). 

§  332—350.  Period  of  the  Dogmatico-critical  Principle. 

(Canon  of  the  Reformers.  Roman  Church.  Greek  Church. 
Seventeenth  century.  Eighteenth.  Nineteenth.  Tuebingen  School. 
Results.  The  Canon  and  Dogmatics.  The  Canon  in  England,  Hol- 
land and  France.  Church  and  school.  Retrospect). 

BOOK  THIRD. 

History  of  the  Preservation  of  the  New  Testament  Writings. 
History   of  the  Text. 

§  351—353.  Preliminary  History. 
(The  original  Copies.    History  and  description). 

§  354-389.    Period  of  the  Written  Text. 
a)    Internal  History. 

(Period  of  uncertainty  "and  confusion.  Designed  alterations 
— for  improvement,  glosses,  dogmatic.  Liturgical  additions.  Unin- 
tentional alterations.  Ecclesiastical  supervision.  Recensions.  The 
Alexandrian,  Constantinopolitan  and  Occidental  texts.  Final  fixed- 
ness). 

h)  External  History. 

(Material  and  form  of  the  Manuscripts.  Characters,  accents, 
punctuation.  Additions  to  the  text.  Lectionaries.  Ammonian 
sections.  Chapters  and  verses.  Superscriptions.  Subscriptions). 

§  390-420.    Period  of  the  Printed  Text. 

(Critical  apparatus.  Description  of  Manuscripts.  Versions. 
Quotations  by  the  Church  Fathers.  Textual  Criticism.  Prepara- 
tion for  printing  aiRl  criticism. 

Early  Editions.  The  Complutensian  Polyglot.  The  editions  of 
Erasmus.  Of  Stephens.  Textus  Receptus.  Beza.  Mixed  editions. 
Elzevirs.  Beginnings  of  critical  revision.  Polyglots.  Mill.  Wetstein. 
More  recent  recensions.  Bentley.  Bengel.  Griesbach.  Knapp. 
Scholz.  Lachmann.  Tischendorf.  Critical  editions  in  countries  out- 
side of  Germany.  Mill.  Tregelles.  Alford.  Scrivener.  Westcott  and 
Hort). 

BOOK   FOURTH. 

History  of  the  Circulation  of  the  Neio  Testament  Writings. 

History  of  the  Versions. 
§  421,  422.  Preliminary  History. 

(Spread  of  Christianity  \vithout  books). 
g  423—457.  Period  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Versions. 
•      a)  Origin,  character  and  literature. 

h)  The  East. 
(Syriac.  Peshito  and  Philoxenian.  Egyptian.  Ethiopic.  Arme- 
nian. Georgian.  Arabic.  Persian.  Amharic). 
c)  The  North. 
(Gothic.  LTlfilas.  Slavic). 


106  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

d)  The  West. 
(The  Itala.  Jerome.  The  Vulgate). 
§  458—500  Period  of  the  Popular  Versions. 

a)  Transition.  Survey. 

6)  Middle  Ages. 
(Anglo-Saxon.  German.  French.  Other  countries). 

c)  Modern  Times. 

(Luther's  Bible.  French  translations,  English.  Italian.  Spanish, 
Slavic  countries.  Catholic  Vulgate.  Sixtine  and  Clementine  editions. 
Improved  Protestant  Church  Versions.  German,  French,  English, 
Catholic.  Less  extended  European  dialects.  Modern  Greek. 
Russian.    Missionary  Bibles.  For  the  Jews. 

d)  The  Present  Times. 

(Bible  Societies.  Asiatic,  African  and  Polynesian  translations. 
Attempts  at  Revision  of  current  versions.  Modern  Catholic  ver- 
sions). 

BOOK  FIFTH. 

History  of  the  Theoloyiaal  Use  of  the  New  Testament  Writings. 
History  of  Exegesis. 

§  501—506.  Preliminary  History. 

(Beginning  of  Exegesis.  The  Exegesis  of  Old  Testament. 
Aniong  the  Jews.  The  Apostles.  The  Early  Christians). 

§  507—543.  Period  of  the  Allegorico-edificatory  Interpretation 
of  Scripture. 
a)  In  the  Early  Church. 
(Heretical  Gnosis. 'Ecclesiastical  Gnosis.  Mystical  Exposition. 
The  School  of  xilexandria.  Origen  and  followers.  Dogmatic  method. 
Authority  of  Tradition.  Orthodoxy.  Antiochian  School.  Historical 
Exposition.  Chrysostom   Decline  of  Historical  Exegesis). 
h)  The  Middle  Ages. 
(Tendencies,  methods  and  compilations.  Sixth  to  eighth  century. 
Time  of   Charlemagne.     Mediaeval  glosses,    scholia  and  catense. 
The  Schoolmen.  The  Mystics), 
c)  The  Renaissance. 
(Jewish  exegesis.    Study  of  the  Classics.  The  Humanists). 
§  544—600.  Period  of  the  Dogmatico-Historical  Interpretation 
of  Scripture. 

a)  Exegesis  in  the  service  of  the  Reformation, 
(In  general.  Lutherans.  Calvinists.  Catholics). 
h)  Exegesis  in  the  service  of  the  Confessions. 
(Catholic  Exegesis.  The  Protestant  Confessional  Hermeneutics. 
Lutherans.  Reformed.  Socinians.  Cocceians.  Pietists.   Apocalyptic 
Exegesis.     Jansenists.    Arminians.    Philologists.    Archaeologists. 
Writers  of  Catena.  Historical  tendency.  Paraphrasts.  The  AVoUian 
Philosophy). 

c)  Exegesis  in  the  service  of  the  Schools. 
(The  Revolution.  Ernesti.  Sender.  The  Illumination.  Rationa- 
lism. Kant.  Herder.  Grammatico-historical  Exegesis.  The  older 
Tuebingen  School.  Supernaturalists.  Conflict  with  Rationalism. 
Mystics.  Swedenborg.  The  Restoration.  Schleiermacher.  Historical 
Criticism.  Orthodoxy.  Hegelians.  Philological-historical  Exegesis. 
Catholic  Exegesis.  The  Historical  Criticism  of  England,  Holland, 
and  France.  Retrospect). 


BIBLICAL   ISAGOGICS. 


107 


The  great  need  of  our  times  is  a  work  on  "New  Testament  In- 
trodiiotion,"  of  equal  scholarship  and  thoroughness,  written  ±"roin  a 
conservative  and  evangelical  standpoint.  The  topics  suggested  by 
this  outline  of  Reuss'  work,  can  readily  be  investigated  by  the  stud- 
ent by  examining  such  Dictionaries  and  Enclyclopsedias,  as  Her- 
zog,  Kitto,  M'  Clintock  and  Strong,  Schaff-Herzog,  and  Smith,  al- 
ready mentioned. 

SELECT  LITERATURE 

OF 

BIBLICAL  INTRODUCTION. 

1.      INTRODUCTIONS  TO  THE  BIBLE  AS  A  WHOLE. 

1  Angus,  Joseph.  The  Bible  Hand-Book:  an  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  Sacred  Scripture.    London  and  Philadelphia. 

An  excellent  work  of  a  popular  character. 

2  Avre  John.  A  Compendious  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the 
Bible.  Illustrated  vith  maps  and  other  engravings.  Twelfth 
Edition.  London,  1877.  .        ,  ,    ^  . 

This  is  a  synopsis  of  the  work  of  Home,  mentioned  below,  and 
of  value  to  the  genial  student. 
3.    Harman,  Henry  M.    Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  New  York,  1883. 
An  honor  to  American  scholarship. 

4  Hertwig,  Otto  Eobert.    Tabellen  zur  Einleitung  in  die  kano- 
nischen  und  apokryphischen  Buecher  des  Alien  Testaments. 
Besorgt  von  Dr.  P.  Kleinert.  Berlin.  1869. 

This  work  is  to  be  highlv  recommended,  giving  at  a  glance 
the  results  of  modern  criticism,  covering  not  only  the  works  ot 
such  critics  as  Bertholdt,  Eichhorn,  Augusti,  de  ^^  ette,  Ewaid, 
Hitzig,  Hirzel.  and  Knobel,  but  also  such  conservative  exegetes 
as  Hengstenl)erg,  Ha^vernick,  Keil,  Hofmann,  Neumann,  Au- 
berlen,  Delitzsch  and  others. 

5  Home  Thomas  Hartwell.  An  Introduction  to  the  Critical 
Study  and  Knowledge  of  tlie  Holy  Scriptures.  Second  volume 
edited  bv  Rev.  John  Ayre,  and  the  fourth  volume  by  S.  P.  Tre- 
gelles.  4  vols.  I4th  edition.  London.  1877.  .      ^  .     . . 

This  is  the  best  Introduction  on  the  whole  Bible  extant  in  the 
English  language.  It  is  very  comprehensive,  embracing 
Christian  evidences,  Hermeneutics,  Biblical  Geography  and 
Antiquities,  and  Bibliography.  Volumes  two  and  four  are  de- 
voted to  Isagogics  or  Biblical  Introduction  proper.  The  second 
volume  of  the  tenth  edition  treating  of  the  Biblical  Criticism 
of  the  Old  Testament,  was  edited  by  Dr.  Samuel  Davidson,  but 
on  account  of  his  free  views  on  Inspiration,  the  second  volume 
of  the  eleventh  edition  was  intrusted  to  Dr.  Ayre.  The  fourth 
volume  on  the  New  Testament  is  edited  by  that  eminent  biblical 
scholar.  Dr.  Tregelles.  All  editions  after  the  tenth  are  the  same. 
We  cannot  recommend  this  work  too  highly,  for  it  includes 
everything  necessary  for  a  true  understanding  of  the  Bible. 


108  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The  American  edition  of  Home,  is,  for  critical  purposes,  com- 
paratively worthless,  being  a  reprint  of  an  early  edition. 
6.    Weber,  F.  W.  Kurzgefasste  Eiiileitung  in  dielieiUgen  Hchriften 
Alien  und  Neuen  testarnents.  6  Auflage.  Nordlingen,  1881. 
An  excellent  manual. 

2.   INTRODUCTIONS  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

1.  Bleek,  Friedrich.  An  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament.  Edited 
by  J.  F.  Bleek  and  A.  Kamphausen.  Translated  from  the 
second  German  edition  bv  G.  H.  Venaliles.  2  vols.  London, 
1869.  Fourth  German  edition,  by  J.  Wellhausen.  Berlin,  1878. 

Xot  to  be  recommended  to  students  but  of  value  to  specialists 
who  wish  to  become  acquainted  with  the  vagaries  of  Criticism. 

2.  Davidson.  Samuel.  .4/?.  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament, 
Critical,  Historical,  and  Theoloaical;  containing  a  discussion 
of  the  most  important  questions  belonging  to  the  several  books. 
3  vols.  London,  1802. 

The  author  holds  free  views  on  inspiration. 

3.  De  Wette,  ^Y.  M.  L.  Lehrbnch  d.  his-t.-Krit.  Einleitimg  in  das 
Alte  Testament.  Achte  durchgehends  verbesserte,  stark  ver- 
mehrte    Ausgabe,  by  Eberhard  iSchrader.  Berlin,  18(59. 

De  Wette  would  no  longer  recognize  his  work,  for  it  is  not 
only  changed  in  form  but  also  in  its  relation  to  criticism. 

4  Haevernick,  H.  A.  Ch.  A  General  Historico-Critical  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Old  Testament.  Translated  from  the  German  by 
William  Lindsav  Alexander.  Edinlmrgh,  1852.  Second  German 
Edition  by  C.  Y\  Keil.  Frankfurt  and  Erlangen,  1854,  56. 

5  Kleinert,  Faul.  Ahriss  der  Einl.  zum  Alteii  Testament  in  Ta- 
belleiiform.  Pp.  105.  Berlin,  1878. 

This  work  is  very  valuaV)le,  and  is  really  the  third  edition  of 
Hertwig's  Tabellen  mentioned  above.    The  student  who  posses- 
ses Keil  and  this  work  of  Kleinert  will  need  no  better  guides. 
6.    Keuss,  Ed.    Die  Geschichte  der  heiligen  Schrift  Alten  Testa- 
ments.   1.  und2.    Halfte.  Pp.  743.  Braunschweig,  1881. 

A  work  of  much  erudition,  a  companion  volume  to  his  well- 
known  work  on  the  New  Testament. 

3.   INTRODUCTIONS  TO  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

1.  Bleek,  Friedrich.  An  Introduction  to  the  Neio  Testamfnt.  Edited 
by  J.  F.  Bleek.  Translated  from  the  German  of  the  second  edi- 
tion by  William  Urwick.  2  vols.  Edinburgh,  1869.  Third  Ger- 
man edition  by  Mangold.  Berlin,  1875. 

One  of  the  best  works  on  Xew  Testament  Introduction  ex- 
tant, but  to  be  used  with  care. 

2.  Credner,  K.  A.    Einleitimg  in  das  N.  T.  Halle,  1836. 

3.  Davidson,  Samuel.  An  Bitrodiiction  to  the  Study  of  the  New 
Testament,  Critical,  Exegetical,  and  Theological.  2  vols.  Lon- 
don, 1868.  Second  edition,  1882. 

The  work  of  a  scholar,  but  to  be  used  with  care. 
4     De  Wette,  W.  M.  L.    Leltrhuch  d.ihist.-Krit.  Einleitung  in  die 
kanon.  Buecher  des  N.  T.  6.  Auflage  von  Messner  u.  Luene- 
mann.  Berlin,  1860. 


BIBLICAL  INTRODUCTION.  109 

5.  Guericke,  H.  E.  F.  Neuteet.  Isagogik.  3.  Aullage.  Leipsic, 
1868. 

The  best  work,  and  we  mig-ht  almost  say,  the  only  work,  from 
a  conservative  standpoint,  in  German. 

H.  Hertwig,  O.  li.  Tabellen  zur  Ei'tileitung  ins  N.  T.  4  Au flags, 
besorgt  von  Weingarten.  Berlin,  1872. 

The  most  valuable  work  which  can  be  recommended  to  stud- 
ents, and  which  has  already  been  referred  to.  Use  has  been 
made,  and  the  opinions  cited,  of  such  authors  as  Hug,  Schott, 
Eichhorn,  Credner,  de  Wette,  Guericke,  Neudecker,  Bleek, 
Reuss,  as  well  as  of  all  the  best  commentators  on  the  books  of 
the  Xew  Testament. 

7.  Sawyer,  L.  A.  Introduction  to  the  Neio  'Testament.  Xew  York, 
1879. 

AVe  would  here  again  call  especial  attention  to  the  merits  of 
Smith's  Dictionary  o/i^/?ei^i6/e  (American  edition,  4  vols.,  edited 
l)y  Hackett  and  Abbot).  It  is  especially  rich  in  Biblical  Intro- 
duction, and  is  a  library  in  itself.  For  the  student  of  little 
means,  it  will  take  the  place  of  a  100  volumes.  Though  com- 
paratively expensive  (.$18.00),  it  is  the  cheapest  investment  in 
the  end. 

4.      ON  THE  CANON    OF   THE  BIBLE. 

] .  Charteris,  A.  H.  The  New  Testament  Scriptures :  their  claims, 
history  and  authority.  Being  theCroall  Lectures  for  1882.  Lon- 
don and  New  York.  1882. 

2 Cano')i,icity :  a  collection  of  Early  Testimonies 

to  the  Canonical  Books  of  the  New  Testament,  based  on  Kirch- 
hofer's  Quellensammlwng.    Edinburgh  and  London,  1881. 

8.  Credner,  C.  A.  Qeschichte  des  neutest.  Kanon  herausgegeben 
von  G.  Volkmar.  Berlin,  1860. 

4.  Davidson,  Samuel.  The  Canon  of  the  Bible:  its  formation, 
history  and  fluctuations.  Third  edition.  London,  1880. 

An  enlarged  and  revised  edition  of  the  same  author's  article 
on  the  Canon  in  the  EncyclopGedia  Britannica  (ninth  edition). 

5.  Gaussen,  L.  The  Canon  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  examined  i7i  the 
light  of  History.  Translated  from  the  French  and  abridged  by 
Dr.  Edward  N.  Kirk.  Boston,  1862. 

6.  Stuart,  Moses.  A  critical  History  and  Defence  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Canon.  Andover,  1865. 

7.  Westcott,  Brooke  Foss.  A  General  Survey  of  the  History  of  the 
Canon  of  the  JYetv  Testament.  Fifth  Edition.  London,  1881. 

The  Standard  work  on  the  Canon  of  the  New  Testament.  See 
also  Westcott's  article  on  the  Canon  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of 
the  Bible. 


110  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

SECTION  XLVII 

BIBLICAL    CRITICISM. 

The  object  of  Biblical  Criticism  is  to  determine  upon  the 
authenticity  and  integrity  of  the  sacred  text.  The  authenticity 
has  reference  to  the  writing  as  a  whole ;  the  integrity  looks  to 
the  completeness  of  particular  passages  or  of  the  text.  That 
writing  is  authentic  which  has  a  genuine  original  or  author- 
ity ;  that  possesses  integrity  which  is  a  complete  reproduction 
of  the  work  of  the  author.  Thus,  for  instance,  we  may  say  the 
Book  of  Isaiah  is  authentic,  Isaiah  wrote  it;  and  the  text  ot 
Isaiah  in  a  certain  edition  is  presented  in  its  integrity. 

It  is  theobject  of  Criticism  to  judge  in  regard  to  these  ques- 
tions on  scientific  principles,  and  where  the  genuine  reading, 
essential  to  the  integrity  of  the  book,  is  lost  or  obscured,  to  re- 
store it.  Criticism  in  its  proper  sense  concerns  itself  only  with 
the  text  of  the  Scriptures,  not  with  that  which  is  within  the  text. 
The  Criticism  ol  Isaiah,  for  instance,  as  we  here  use  the  word, 
would  only  bear  upon  its  being  the  authentic  work  of  the  pro- 
phet, and  presenting  his  work  in  its  integrity,  and  beyond  this 
would  have  nothing  to  do  witii  the  contents  of  the  book. 

The  Bible  has  been  perpetuated  by  the  hand  of  man ;  and 
no  two  editions  of  it  in  any  language  are  probably  in  the  stric- 
ter sense  exactly  alike.  If  this  be  true,  as  it  is,  of  printed  edit- 
ions, much  more  is  it  true  of  the  written  copies,  by  which  alone 
the  Scriptures  were  for  ages  perpetuated.  We  find  that  with 
all  the  care  exercised  by  Jewish  and  Christian  writers,  various 
readings  have  arisen.  The  authors  of  the  Bible  were  inspired 
but  its  transcribers  were  not.  While,  however,  all  transcribers 
are  liable  to  mistakes,  it  is  less  likely  that  two  independent  tran- 
scribers will  coincide  in  a  particular  mistake,  than  that  one 
should  make  it.  Two  copies  both  of  which  have  mistakes  may 
therefore  be  the  means  of  correcting  each  other.  If,  instead  of 
two  copies  we  have  a  thousand,  it  is  evident  that  while  there 
are  many  more  mistakes  niade,  and  consequently  many  more 
various  readings  made,  than  in  two,  yet  they  greatly  enlarge 
the  means  of  fixing  the  real  text. 


BIBLICAL  CRITICISM.  Ill 

The  labors  of  Tischendorf  and  his  discovery  of  the  Codex 
Sinaiticus  have  given  fresh  impulse  especially  to  New  Testa- 
ment criticism.  Yet  the  Codex  Sinaiticus,  profoundly  interest- 
ing as  it  is,  only  strengthens  the  evidence,  already  so  abundant, 
and  nothing  absolutely  vital  is  dependant  on  the  results  of  text- 
ual criticism.  The  most  corrupt  text,  by  which,  however,  we 
do  not  mean  wilfully  corrupted,  and  the  most  pure  text,  teach 
the  same  great  truths.  The  first  edition  of  Erasmus,  which  was 
the  second  printed,  but  the  first  published,  and  the  eighth  of 
Tischendorf,  create  the  same  impressions  of  the  truth  which 
determines  our  faith  and  shapes  our  life;  yet  the  true  scholar 
and  the  earnest  christian  will  rejoice  together  at  every  success- 
ful effort  to  restore  to  the  minutest  point  the  very  words  chosen 
by  the  holy  men  of  old  who  "spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the 
Holy  Ghost". 

The  judgment  in  regard  to  the  authenticity  of  a  writing  is 
only  partly  dependent  upon  the  canonicity  of  it.  The  canoni- 
cal dignity  of  the  Bible  certainly  depends,  however,  to  some 
degree  upon  the  integrity  of  the  particular  parts  as  affecting 
the  general  purity  of  the  text.  If  we  acknowledge  Isaiah,  e.  g., 
to  be  a  canonical  book  we  do  not  in  this  acknowledge  that  a 
particular  book  bearing  that  name,  but  radically  corrupt  in  its 
text,  is  fairly  to  be  considered  part  of  the  Canon. 

We  have  entire  books  for  which  claims  have  been  put  in  at 
various  times  as  canonical  without  ground,  such  as  the  New 
Testament  Apocrypha,  and  still  more  the  Old  Testament  Apo- 
crypha. A  large  part  of  the  latter  the  Church  of  Rome,  in  de- 
fiance of  the  most  important  witnesses  of  antiquity,  puts  into  the 
Canon.  In  Protestant  science  disputes  have  arisen  in  regard  to 
the  canonicity  of  particular  books  in  the  received  Canon  as,  e. 
g.,  in  the  New  Testament,  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter,  and  in 
the  Old  Testament,  the  Book  of  Daniel.  There  are  certain  books 
of  the  New  Testament,  of  whose  authenticity  and  canonicity  no 
doubt  was  ever  expressed  within  the  Christian  Church.  There 
are  others  which  were  once  doubted,  but  on  fuller  evidence  re- 
ceived ;  such  were  the  Epistles  of  Jude,  James,  2  and  3  John,  2 
Peter,  the  Apocalypse,  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (known 


112  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCL0P.?^:DIA. 

as  the  Antilegomend).  In  regard  to  the  canonicity  of  the  Epi- 
stle of  James,  Luther,  with  no  Httle  patristic  authority  to  sup- 
port him,  at  one  time  had  doubts  both  of  an  internal  and  external 
nature,  doubts  which  however  were  entirely  dispelled.  All  these 
questions  belong  to  Biblical  Criticism. 

Biblical  Criticism  divides  itself  into  external  and  internal, 
with  reference  to  the  grounds  of  its  determination  ;  and  into 
negative  and  positive  with  reference  to  its  contents. 

Negative  criticism  is  satisfied  with  distinguishing  and  sepa- 
rating the  spurious,  in  general  and  in  particular;  while  positive 
criticism  endeavors  to  restore  the  original  text.  The  first  rests 
when  it  has  pointed  out  the  wrong ;  the  second  goes  on  to  es- 
tablish the  right. 

Criticism  is  closely  related  to  Exegesis.  They  are  indeed 
distinct  but  in  practice  are  closely  connected.  It  is  Exegesis 
which  awakens  the  interest  in  criticism,  for  we  care  little  about 
the  text  of  a  book  whose  matter  has  no  interest  for  us,  and  both 
sciences  act  reciprocally  upon  each  other.  Criticism  settles 
what  exegesis  is  to  use*. 

Critisism  divides  itself  into  various  branch  -s  in  accordance 
with  the  departments  of  knowledge:  1)  Philosophical  Criticism; 
2)  Historical  Criticism;  and  3)  Scientific  Criticismt,  We  have  here 
to  do  with  Historical  Criticism,  which  deals  with  the  various  sour- 
ces of  history,  literary  documents,  laws,  traditions,  etc.  Biblical 
Criticism  is  one  of  the  sections  of  literary  criticism,  as  it  has  to  do 
with  the  sacred  literature  of  the  Cristian  Church. 

Biblical  Criticism  has  the  advantag-e  of  all  the  preliminary  work 
in  other  fields  of  criticism  to  guide  and  illustrate  its  own  peculiar 
work.  From  General  Critieism  it  derives  the  fundamental  laws  of 
thought  which  must  not  be  violated,  such  as  the  laws  of  idi-ntity, 
of  contradiction,  of  exclusion,  and  of  sufficient  reason;,  also  the  laws 
of  probation  J,  which  must  be  applied  to  all  reasoning.  From  His- 
'  torical  Criticism  Biblical  Criticism  derives  the  principles  of  historic 
genesis.  The  evidences  of  history  belong  to  the  past.  They  are  oral, 
written  or  monumental.    They  inust  be  traced  back  to  their  origin 

*  On  foregoing  section  see  Manuscript  Lectures  of  Dr.  Krauth. 

t  See  Briggs,  Cliarles  Augustus.  Biblical  Study,  its  principles,  metliods,  and 
liistory,  together  witti  a  Catalogue  of  Books  of  Reference.  Cliarles  Scribner's  Sons. 
New  York,  1883. 

An  excellent  work,  from  which  I  have  condensed  the  following  notes.  See  pages 
2-87,  etc. 

t  That  is,  nothing  is  to  be  presupposed  as  proved,  which  itself  requires  a  de- 
monstration: there  must  be  no  reasoning  backward  and  forward  or  in  a  circle;  no 
jumping  at  conclusions;  nothing  is  to  be  proved  other  than  what  it  was  proposed  to 
prove.    See  Hamilton,  Sir  William.    Lectures  on  Logic,  p.  i{69  (Mansel  &  Veitch). 


BIBLICAL   CRITICISM.  113 

in  order  to  determine  whether  they  are  genuine  or  forgeries,  or 
whether  there  is  a  mingling  of  various  elements  that  need  to  he  se- 
parated and  distinguished.  From  Literary  Criticism  Biblical  Cri- 
ticism derives  its  chief  principles  and  methods.  As  literature  it  must 
first  be  considered  as  text.  The  manuscripts,  versions,  and  citations 
are  studied  in  order  to  attain,  as  far  as  possible,  the  originals. 

The  science  according  to  the  laws  of  which  we  consider  the 
Canon  of  Sacred  Scriptures,  as  to  its  idea,  its  historical  formation, 
its  extent,  character,  authority,  and  historical  influence,  is  known 
as  Biblical  Canon ics,  and  properly  belongs  to  the  foregoing  section, 
as  a  department  of  Biblical  Isagogics. 

Instead  of  the  terms  external  and  internal  criticism,  proposed 
by  Hagenbach,  the  commonly  accepted  division  among  scholars  is 
that  of  Lower  or  Textual  Criticism,  and  Higher  Criticism.  Textual 
Criticism  itself,  however,  may  be  divided  into  external  and  internal 
criticism. 

Textual  Criticism  considers  the  text  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures 
both  as  a  whole  and  in  detail.  This  department  has  a  wide  field  of 
investigation.  It  seeks  to  restore  as  far  as  possible,  the  genuine, 
original,  pure  and  uncorrupted  text  of  the  Word  of  God,  as  it  pro- 
ceeded directly  from  the  originjii  authors  to  the  original  readers.  It 
naturally  divides  itself  into  1)  the  Textual  Criticism  of  the  Old  Te- 
stament, and  2)  that  of  the  Xew  Testament,  but  much  more  progress 
has  been  mads  in  the  New  Testament  department.  The  principles, 
however,  are  the  same  whether  applied  to  the  Old  Testament  or  to 
the  New,  so  that  the  difference  between  works  treating  of  these 
topics  respectively,  lies  not  in  the  mode  of  treatment,  but  simply  in 
their  contents. 

On  the  Texual  Criticism  of  the  New  Testament  we  cannot  re- 
commend a  better  work  for  the  student  than  Schaff's  ''Companion 
to  the  (jfreek  Testament  and  English  Version''  (New  York,  1883). 
The  first  chapter  (pp.  1—81)  contains  a  most  valuable  summary  on 
"The  Language  of  the  New  Testament".  As  the  text  of  the  New 
Testament  is  derived  from  three  sources, — 1)  Greek  Manuscripts, 
2)  Ancient  Translations,  and  3)  C^Juotations  of  the  Fathers  and  other 
ancient  w^riters, — we  have  in  three  successive  chapters  (pp.  82 — 141, 
142—163, 164—170),  a  full  and  most  satisfactory  presentation  of  these 
subjects.* 

*  The  following  is  an  outline  of  these  three  chapters : 
Chapter  II.  Manuscripts  of  tJie  New  Testament.  Literature  on  the  Sources  of  the 
Text  and  on  Textual  Criticism  of  the  New  Testament.  Sources  of  the  Text. 
Facsimile  Specimens  of  the  chief  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament.  General 
character  of  MSS.  The  science  of  Diplomatics  and  PaUeography  (the  art  of 
reading  ancient  MSri.,  and  determining  their  age  and  value).  (The  number 
of  MSS.  now  known  is  over  1700,  including  all  classes,  and  is  gradually  in- 
creasing, differing  in  age,  extent,  and  value,  written  between  fourth  and 
sixteenth  centuries.)  Uncial  Manuscripts.  Primary  Uncials.  Codex  Sinai- 
ticus  (Aleph)  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  Vaticanus  (B),  in  Library  of  the  Vatican 
at  Rome,  both  of  the  fourth  century.  Alexandilnus  (A),  in  British  Museum, 
London,  Codex  of  Ephrsem  (G),  in  National  Library  of  Paris,  both  of  the  fifth 
century,  and  Codex  Bezae  (D),  in  the  University  Library,  Cambridge,  to  which 
Beza  presented  it  in  1.581,  of  the  sixth  century.  Secondary  Uncials.  (All  the 
Uncial  MSS.  are  written  in  capital  letters,  from  the  fourth  to  the  tenth  cen- 
tm-y.  The  Cursive  MSS.  List  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  Cursives.  List  of 
published  Uncial  MSS. 


114  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The  fifth  chapter  is  devoted  to  Textual  Criticism  proper  (pp. 
171—224).    The  topics  discussed  are: 

1)  Nature  and  object  of  Textual  Criticism; 

2)  Origin  of  variations*; 

3)  Number  of  variations!; 

4)  Value  of  variations  J; 

5)  Classes  of  variations; 

a)  Omissions; 
6)  Additions; 
c)  Substitutions; 

Chapter  III.  The  Ancient  Versioy^s.  Latin  Versions  (Itala,  Latin  Vulgate).  Syriac  Ver- 
sions (the  Peshito,  Philoxenian  or  Harclean,  Curetonian,  Jerusalem).  Old 
Egyptian  or  Coptic  Versions  (Memphitic,  Thebaic,  Bashmuric)  ^thiopic  Ver- 
sion. Gothic  Version.    Armenian  Version. 

Chapter  IV.    Patristic  Quotations.    Value  of  the  Fathers  as  witnesses  of  the  text. 

Greek  Fathers :  Clemens  Romanus^.  \)5;  Ignatius./?.  107;  Polycarp  fl. 
108;  Justin  iiartyrdl.  167;  Clemens  Alexandrinus  d.  220;  Origen  d.  254; 
Hippolytusif.  220;  Eusebius  d.  .340;  Athanasius  d.  378;  Basil,  the  Great  d. 
379;  Gregory  Nazianzus  d.  38;^;  Gregory  of  Nyssa  d.  37  i ;  Ephroem.  the  Sy- 
rian d.  373;  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  d.  386;  ChrysostoHi  d.  407;  Epiphanius  d. 
403;  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  d.  428;  Cyril  of  Alexandria  d.  444;  Theodoret 
d.  458;  etc. 

Latin  Fathers :  Tertullian.^.  200;  Cyprian  d.  258;  Novatian  fl.  251; 
Lactantius./i.  303:  Hilary  of  Poitiers^.  354;  Ambrose  d.  379;  Augustine 
d.  430;  Jerome  d.  420. 

*0n  the  whole,  the  possible  sources  of  various  readings  may  be  classified  as 
follows:  — 

f  Unconscious    f  I  ■  Errors  ot  sight. 

or  -I  2.  Errors  of  Tiearing. 

unintentional  [^3  Errors  of  memory. 
Possible    I 
Sources  of  !  j  4.  Incorporation  of  marginal  glosses,  etc. 

various     ]  r^  corrections  of  harsh  or  unusual  forms  of  words,  or 

Readings. 

I  I        expressions. 

I   Conscious  j  ^  Alterations  in  the  text  to  produce  supposed  harmony 
inten^tlonal  I        ^i^^^  another  passage,  to  complete  a  quotation,  or  to 
1        clear  up  a  supposed  difficulty. 
I  7-  Liturgical  insertions. 
Is.  Alterations  for  dogmatic  reasons. 
See  Hammond's  Outlines  of  Textual  Criticism  applied  to  the  New  Testament. 
Oxford,  1880. 

t  The  various  readings  of  the  Greelc  New  Testament  cannot  fall  much  short  of 
1.50,000,  if  we  include  the  variations  in  the  order  of  the  words,  the  mode  of  spelling, 
and'other  trifles  which  are  ignored  even  in  the  most  extensive  critical  editions. 

%  "Only  about  400  of  the  100,000  or  150,000  variations  materially  affect  the 
sense.  Of  these,  again,  not  more  than  about  fifty  are  really  important  for  some  rea- 
son or  other;  and  even  of  these  fifty  not  one  affects  an  article  of  faith  or  a  precept 
of  duty  which  is  not  abundantly  sustained  by  other  and  undoubted  passages,  or  by 
the  whole  tenor  of  Scripture  teaching"  (p  1 77). 


BIBLICAL  CRITICISM.  115 

6)  Critical  rules*; 

But  all  these  questions  properlj^  belong  to  the  department  of  Isa- 
goyics. 

7)  Application  of  the  rules; 

8)  The  genealogical  method. 

The  last  three  chapters  are  devoted  to  a  History  of  the  Printed 
Text  (pp.  225—298),  of  the  Authorized  Version  (pp.  299—370),  and  of 
the  Revised  Aversion  (pp.  371—494).  Of  the  Appendixes,  two  are 
especially  valuable,  the  first  being  a  list  of  printed  editions  of  the 
Greek  New  Testament,  prepared  by  Prof.  Isaac  H.  Hall,  the  second 
consisting  of  21  fac-similes  of  standard  editions  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment. 

The  Higher  Critvdsm  is  distinguished  from  Textual  Criticism 
by  presupposing  the  text  and  dealing  with  individual  writings  and 
groups  of  writings.  Here  we  have  to  determine  the  historical  ori- 
gin and  authorship,  the  original  readers,  the  design  and  character 
of  the  composition,  and  its  relation  to  the  writings  of  its  groupf. 

But  all  these  questions  properly  belong  to  the  department  of 
Isagogics. 

*  The  following  rules  may  be  regarded  as  being  sound,  and  more  or  less  ac- 
cepted by  the  best  modern  critics: 

1.  Knowledge  of  documentary  evidence  must  precede  the  choice  of  readings. 

2.  All  kinds  of  evidence,  external  and  internal,  must  be  taken  Into  account, 
according  to  their  intrinsic  value. 

.3.  The  sources  of  the  text  must  be  carefully  sifted  and  classified,  and  the  au- 
thorities must  be  weighed  rather  than  numbered.  One  independent  manuscript  may 
be  worth  more  than  a  hundred  copies  which  are  derived  from  the  same  original. 

4.  The  restoration  of  the  pure  text  is  founded  on  the  history  and  genealogy  of 
the  textual  corruptions. 

•5.  The  older  reading  is  preferable  to  the  later,  because  it  is  presumably  nearer 
the  source.  In  exceptional  cases  later  copies  may  represent  a  more  ancient  reading. 
Mere  antiquity  is  no  certain  test  of  superiority,  since  the  corruption  of  the  text  be- 
gan at  a  very  early  date. 

«).  The  shorter  reading  is  preferable  to  the  longer,  because  insertions  and  ad- 
ditions are  more  probable  than  omissions. 

7.  The  more  difficult  reading  is  preferable  to  the  easier.  This  was  Bengel'B  first 
rule. 

8.  The  reading  which  best  explains  the  origin  of  the  other  variations  is  prefer- 
able.   This  rule  is  emphasized  by  Tischendorf. 

9.  That  reading  is  preferable  which  best  suits  the  peculiar  style,  manner  and 
habits  of  thought  of  the  author;  it  being  the  tendency  of  copyists  to  overlook  the 
idiosyncrasies  of  the  writer  {Scrivener). 

10.  That  reading  is  preferable  which  shows  no  doctrinial  bias,  whether  orthodox 
or  heretical. 

11.  The  agreement  of  the  most  ancient  witnesses  of  all  classes  decides  the  true 
reading  against  all  Mediaeval  copies  and  printed  editions. 

12.  The  primary  uncials,  Aleph,  B,  C  and  A— especially.  Aleph  and  B— if  su- 
stained by  other  ancient  Greek  uncials  as  D,  L,  T,  Z  and  first-class  cursives  as  33, 
by  ancient  Versions,  and  Ante-Nicene  citations,  outweigh  all  later  authorities,  and 
give  us  presumably  the  original  text  of  the  sacred  writers  (pp.  202—205;. 

t  See  Briggs'  Biblical  Study,  p.  24. 


SELECT  LITERATURE 

OF 

BIBLICAL  CRITICISM, 

1.      OKITICAL  EDITIONS  OF  THE  HEBREW  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

1.  Baer,  S.  unci  Delitzsch,  F.  Liber  Genesis.  Textum  masoreticum 
accuratissime  expressit,  e  fontibiis  Diasora3  varie  illiistravit, 
notis  criticis  contirmavit.  Ex  officina  Bernharcli  Tauchnitz. 
Leipsic,  1869.  Isaiah,  1872;  Job,  1875;  The  TweUe  Minor  Pro- 
phets, 1878;  Psalms,  1880:  Proverbs,  1880;  Daniel,  Ezra  and  Ne- 
hemiah,  1882. 

The  best  critical  edition,  but  the  Old  Testament  is  not  yet 
complete. 

2.  Biblica  Hebraica  (without  points),  secundum  ultimam  editionem 
Jos.  Athige,  a  Johanne  Leusden  denuo  recosrnitam,  recensita  va- 
riisque  notis  latinis  illustrata  ab  E.  van  der  Hooght.  Editio 
prima  Americana,  sine  punctis  masorethicis.  2  vols.  Philadelphia, 
1814. 

An  excellent  edition  which  can  often  be  bought  at  a  very  low 
price,  at  second-hand  book-stores. 

3.  Hahn,  Augustus.  Biblia  Hebraica,  secundum  editiones^  Jos. 
Athise,  Johannis  Leusden,  Jo.  Simonis  aliorumque  imprimis  E. 
van  der  Hooght,  etc.    Editio  Stereotypa.   Leipsic,  1872. 

4.  Michaelis,  John  Henry.  Biblia  Hebraica  ex  aliquot  manuscrip- 
tis  et  compluribus  impressis  codicibus,  item  masora  tam  edita 
quam  manuscripta  aliisque  Hebrajorum  criticis  diligenter  re- 
censita   Accedunt  loca  scriptura^  parallela,  verbalia  et  realia, 

brevesque  adnotationes.    Halle,  1720. 

This  edition  is  still  of  great  value  and  has  not  yet  been  super- 
seded. Especially  valuable  are  the  parallel  references  and  the 
annotations. 

5.  Theile,  C.  G.  Guil.  Biblia  Hebraica  ad  optimas  editiones  im- 
primis E.  van  der  Hooght,  etc.  Editio  stereotypa  quinta.  Bern- 
hard  Tauchnitz.    Leipsic,  1878. 

This  is  the  best  critical  edition  of  the  whole  Bible  published, 
and  the  key  to  the  Masoretic  notes  is  especially  valuable. 

2.      CRITICAL   EDITIONS   OF   THE  NEW   TESTAMENT. 

1.  Alford,  Henry.  The  Greek  J'e6•tome?^]t  .•  with  a  critically  revised 
text,  a  digest  of  various  readings,  marginal  references  to  ver- 
bal and  idiomatic  usage,  prolegomena,  and  a  critical  and  exegeti- 
cal  commentary.  For  the  use  of  theological  students  and  minis- 
ters.   4  vols.  Sixth  edition.    Boston,  1880. 

Dean  Alford  deserves  honorable  mention  as  a  textual  critic, 
and  this  work,  taking  into  consideration  its  varied  contents,  is 
a  valuable  acquisition  to  anv  library. 


BIBLICAL   CRITICISM.  117 

2.  Lachmann,  Carl.  Nomun  Testamentum  Groece  et  Latine.  2 
vols.  J5erlin,  1842—50. 

In  this  larger  edition  the  younj^er  Philip  Buttman  added  the 
critical  apparatus  of  the  Greek  text.  The  Latin  text  of  the  Vul- 
gate is  derived  from  Codd.  Fuldensis.  Amiatlnus,  and  other  man- 
uscripts. Lachmann's  object  was  "to  restore  the  text  of  the 
fourth  century,  as  found  in  the  oldest  sources  then  known  yet 
not  as  a  Jinal  text,  but  simply  as  a  sure  liistorical  basis  for 
further  operations  of  internal  criticism." 

3.  Scrivener,  F.  H.  A.  Novum  Testamentum  textus  StepJuinini 
A.  1).  1550.  Accedunt  variai  lectiones  editionum  Beza?,  Elzeviri 
Lachmanni,  Tischendorfii,  Tregellesii.  Cam])ridge  and  London, 
1877. 

xl  very  desirable  and  handy  edition,  and  can  be  had  with 
a  Lexicon, 

4.  Theile,  K.  G.  ^\.  Novum  Testamentum  Greece.  Ed.  ster  XIII 
Bernhard  Tauchnitz.    Leipsic.  1883. 

Edited  by  Oscar  von  Gebhardt  and  contains  a  collation  of  the 
texts  of  Tregelles  and  Tischendorf.  This  edition  has  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  free  from  all  typograhpical  errors. 

5.  Tischendorf,  Constantinus.  Norum  Testamentum  Grwce,  etc. 
Editio  octava  critica  major.    2  vols.  Leipsic,   1809—1872. 

This  is  the  most  valuable  edition,  with  a  full  critical  appa- 
ratus, published.  There  is  also  an  editio  octava  critica  minor 
m  one  volume,  giving  the  same  text  with  the  principal  readings 

There  are  different  manual  editions  of  Tischendorf,  to  two 
of  which  we  would  call  especial  attention,  the  editio  academica 
pul^hshed  by  Hermann  3Iendelssolin  at  Leipsic  (though  contai- 
ning a  few  errors),  valuable  for  its  small  compact  form,  and  that 
edited  by  Oscar  von  Gebhardt,  published  by  Tauchnitz,  of 
Leipsic,  and  containing  in  foot-notes  the  readings  of  Tregelles 
Westcott  and  Hort.  This  same  text  is  also  published  with  Lu- 
ther's revised  German  Version,  Leipsic,  1881.    See  below. 

6.  Tregelles,  Samuel  Prideaux.  The  Greek  Neto  Testament,  edited 
from  ancient  authorities,  with  the  Latin  Version  of  Jerome, 
from  the  Codex  Amiatinus.  London,  published  in  parts  from 
1857  to  1879,  1  vol.  quarto. 

The  seventh  part  (published  in  1879,  after  the  death  of  Dr. 
Tregelles)  contains  the  Prolegomena  with  Addenda  and  Cor- 
rigenda compiled  and  edited  by  Dr.  Hort  and  Bev.  A.  W 
Streane. 

"Dr  Tregelles  has  devoted  his  whole  life  to  this  useful  and 
herculean  task,  with  a  reverent  and  devout  spirit  similar  to 
that  of  Bengel,  and  with  a  perseverance  and  success  which  rank 
him  next  to  Tischendorf  among  the  textual  critics  of  the  present 
century"  (>Sfc7ia^).  "Where  Tischendorf  and  Tregelles  differ  (in 
collation),  "the  latter  is  seldom  in  the  wrong"  {Scrivener). 

7.  Westcott,  Brooke  Eoss  and  Hort,  Eenton  John  Anthonv.  The 
Neto  Testament  in  the  Original  Greek.  American  edition, 
with  an  Introduction  by  Philip  Schaff.  Harper  and  Brothers. 
New  York,  1881. 

Cannot  be  too  highly  recommended. 


118  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

3.  TEXTUAL   CRITICISM   OF   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT. 

1.  Ayre,  John.  The  Criticism,  of  the  Old  Testament  as  contained 
in  the  second  volume  of  Home's  Introduction.  Fourteenth 
edition,  1877. 

Very  valuable, 

2.  Davidson,  Samuel.  A  Treatise  on  Biblical  Criticism  exhibiting 
a  Systematic  View  of  that  Science.    2  vols.  London.  1852. 

The  first  volume  treats  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  second  of 
the  New. 

3.  Ginsburg-,  Christian  D.  The  Massorah.  Compiled  from  Man- 
uscripts, alphabetically  and  lexicallv  aranged.  Vol.  1.  Aleph  — 
Jodh.  London,  1880. 

4.  Levita,  Elias.  The  Book  of  the  Massorah,  being  an  exposition 
of  the  Massoretic  notes  on  the  Hebrew  Bible,  or  the  ancient 
critical  apparatus  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew,  with  an 
English  translation  and  critical  and  explanatory  notes.  By 
Christian  D.  Ginsburg.    London,  1867. 

5.  Strack,  Herm.  L.  Prolegomena  Critica  in  Veins  Testamentum 
Hehraicum.    Leipsic,  1873. 

See  also  the  Introductions  of  Keil  and  Eeuss,  and  the  articles 
on  Old  Testament,  Bible  Text,  Biblical  Criticism,  etc.,  in  the 
various  E^icyclopwdias. 

4.  TEXTUAL   CRITICISM   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT. 

1.  Gregory,  Caspar  R.,  and  Abbot,  Ezra.  Prolegomena  to  Tischen- 
dorfs  Evihth  Edition  of  the  Greek  Testament.  Pars  Prior. 
Leipsic,  1884. 

2.  Hammond,  C.  A.  Outlines  of  Textual  Criticism  applied  to  the 
New  Testament.    Third  edition,  revised.    Oxford,  1880. 

A  little  work,  costing  less  than  a  dollar,  which  cannot  be  too 
highly  recommended. 

3.  Mitchell,  E.  C.  A  Guide  to  the  Study  of  the  Authenticity,  Can- 
on, and  Text  of  the  Greek  New  Testament.  Illustrated  by  dia- 
grams, tables,  and  a  map.  AVarren  F.  Draper.  Andover,  1880. 

An  ex  client  little  manual  of  151  pages. 

4.  Schaff,  Philip.  A  Companion  to  the  Greek  Testament  a,nd  the 
English  Version,  with  facsimile  illustrations  of  MSS.  and 
standard  editions  of  the  New  Testament.    New  York,  1883. 

A  work  that  cannot  be  too  highly  commended. 

5.  Scrivener,  F.  H.  A.  A  Plain  Introduction  to  the  Criticism 
of  the  New  Testament,  for  the  use  of  Biblical  Students.  Third 
edition.  Thoroughly  revised,  enlarged,  and  brought  down  to 
the  present  date.    Pp.  712.    London.  1883. 

The  best  separate  work  on  the  subject  in  the  English  lang- 
uage. Scrivener  is  very  conservative,  more  so  than  Tregelles, 
Tischendorf,  or  Hort. 

6.  Tregelles,  Samuel  Prideaux.  Introduction  to  the  Textual  Cri- 
ticism of  the  New  Testament.  This  forms  part  of  the  fourth 
volume  of  Home's  Introduction,  tenth  edition  (1856)  and  later 
(fourteenth,  1877).    It  is  also  printed  separately. 

Very  valuable. 


BIBLICAL   CRITICISM.  11^ 

7.  Westcott,  B.  F.,  and  Ilort,  F.  J.  A.  Introduction  and  Ap- 
jjendix  to  their  New  TesVunent  in  the  Original  Greek,  forming 
the  second  volume.    New  York,  1882. 

This  work  takes  the  very  highest  rank. 

See  also  the  different  works  on  Introduction  and  especially 
the  article  on  The  New  Testame7it  in  Smith's  Dictio7iary  of  the 
Bible  (4  vols.),  by  Westcott. 

5.     HELPS   TO  THE  STUDY   OF   BIBLICAL   CRITICISM. 

1.  Anglo-American  Bible  Remsion:  By  members  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revision  Committee.    Philadelphia,  1879. 

2.  Birks,  Thomas  Rawson.  Essay  on  the  right  estimation  of 
Manuscript  Evidence  in  the  text  of  the  New  Testament.  Lon- 
don, 1878. 

3.  Briggs,  Charles  A.  Biblical  Study,  its  principles,  methods,  and 
Historv,  together  with  a  Catalogue  of  Books  of  reference.  New 
York,  1883. 

4.  Green,  Thomas  S.  A  course  of  developed  Criticism  on  passages 
of  the  New  Testament  materially  affected  by  various  Readings. 
London,  1882. 

5.  Lightfoot,  J.  B.,  Trench,  R.  C,  EUicott,  C.  J.  The  Revision  of 
the  English  Version  of  the  New  Testament,  with  an  Introduc- 
tion by  Philip  Schaff.    New  York,  1875. 

An  exellent  work,  worthy  of  most  careful  study. 

6.  Porter,  J.  S.  Principles  of  Textual   Criticism.    London,   1848. 

7.  Roberts,  Alexander.  Comj)anion  to  the  Revised  Version  of  the 
English  New  Testament.    New  York,  1881. 

8 Old  Testament  Revision.    A  Handbook  for  English 

Readers.    New  York,  1883. 

9.  Scrivener,  F.  H.  A.  Six  Lectures  on  the  Text  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment.   Third  Edition.    London,  1883. 

10.  Turpie,  D.  M.  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Nero.  A  contribu- 
tion to  Biblical  Criticism  and  Interpretation.    London,  1868. 

We  would  in  this  connection  call  attention  to  an  edition 
of  the  Bible  printed  l)y  Eyre  and  Spottiswoode,  London,  and 
edited  with  various  Renderings  and  Readings  from  the  best 
authorities,  by  Professors  Cheyne,  Driver,  Clark,  Good  win,  and 
Sanday. 

6.     POLYGLOTS,    INCLUDING  THE    ORIGINAL    TEXT     WITH 
ONE    VERSION. 

1.  Bagster's  Critical  New  Testament.  Greek  a.nd  English.  Con- 
sisting of  the  Greek  text  of  Scholz,  with  the  readings  both 
textual  and  marginal,  of  Griesbacii;  and  the  variations  of  the 
editions  of  Stephens,  1550;  Beza,  1598;  and  the  Elzevir,  1633; 
with  the  English  Authorised  Version  and  its  marginal  readings. 
Bagster  and  Sons.    London. 

A  handy  edition,  which  can  be  had,  bound  with  a  small 
lexicon,  useful  rather  than  critical. 

2.  English  Kexapla,  The.  The  six  principal  English  Versions  of 
the  New  Testament,  in  pariillel  columns  beneath  the  Greek 
Original  Text.    Wiclif,  1380;  Tyndale,  1543;  Cranmer,  1539;  Ge- 


120  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

neva,  1557;  Rheims,  1582;  Authorised,  1611.    Bagster  and  Sons, 
London. 

3.  Englishman's  Greek  New  Testament.  Giving  the  Greek  Text 
of  Stephens  1550,  with  the  various  readings  of  the  Editions  of 
Elzevir,  1624,  Griesbach,  Lachniann,  Tischendorf,  Tregelles, 
Alford,  and  Wordsworth;  together  with  an  Interlinear  literal 
translation.  To  which  is  added  the  Authorised  Version  of  1611. 
Bagster  and  Sons.    London,  1882. 

4.  Modem  Polyglot  Bible  in  Eight  Languages.  Giving  under  one 
simultaneous  view  the  Hebrew  text,  the  two  ancient  indispens- 
able versions  (the  Septuagint  and  the  Vulgate),  and  a  series  of 
the  best  European  translations.  To  which  is  added  the  Peshito 
Syriac  Kew  Testament,  with  Tables  of  the  various  readings  of 
the  Hebrew,  the  Septuagint,  the  Greek  and  Syriac  New  Testa- 
ments, etc.    Bagster  and  Sons.    London,  1882. 

5.  Novum  Testamentum  Gfrcece  et  6fermanice.  Das  Neue  Testa- 
ment griechisch  nach  Tischendorf's  letzter  Recension  und 
deutsch  nach  dem  revidirten  Luthertext,  mit  Angabe  ab- 
weichender  Lesarten  beider  Texte  und  ausgewilhlten  Parallel- 
stellen,  herausgegeben  von  Oskar  von  Gebhardt.  Bernhard 
Tauchnitz.  Leipsic,  1881. 

A  most  valuable  edition  in  which  the  readings  of  Tregelles 
and  of  Wcstcott  and  Hort  are  indicated,  as  well  as  the  various 
readings  of  the  most  important  editions  of  Luther's  version. 
We  cannot  recommend  this  work  too  highly. 

6.  Old  Testament,  The  Holy  Scripture  of  the  Hebrew  and  English. 
Printed  for  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  Vienna,  1870. 

An  ex  client  edition,  in  clear,  large  type,  of  great  help  to  those 
who  wish  to  train  themselves  in  reading  Hebrew  at  sight. 

7.  Parallel  New  Testament  Greek  and  English.  Being  the  Author- 
ised Version  set  forth  in  1611  arranged  in  parallel  Columns 
with  the  Revised  Version  of  1881  and  with  the  Original  Greek 
as  edited  by  F.  H.  A.  Scrivener,  according  to  the  text  followed 
in  the  Authorised  Version  with  the  variations  adopted  in  the 
Revised  Version.    Cambridge,  1882.  • 

A  most  useful  edition,  elegantly  printed. '  The  Greek  text 
which  Dr.  Scrivener  gives  us,  is,  in  substance  the  textus  receptus 
of  Beza's  edition  of  1598  (the  variations  of  the  Authorised  Ver- 
sion from  Beza's  text  of  1598,  being  only  about  190).  The  New 
Readings  followed  by  the  Revisers  are  printed  in  one  of  the 
columns,  and  the  displaced  readings  of  the  text  are  printed  in 
heavier  type,  so  that  the  eye  can  readily  detect  the  difference. 
In  this  edition  we  have,  therefore  the  Authorised  Version  and 
the  Greek  text  corresponding  to  it,  and  the  Revised  Version 
with  the  Greek  text  corresponding  to  it. 

8.  Revised  Greek-English  New  Testament,  containing  Wescott 
and  Ilort's  Greek  Text  and  the  Revised  English  version  on  op- 
posite pages,  together  with  Schaff's  Introduction.  Harper  and 
Brothers.    New  York,  1882. 

An  edition  of  great  value  and  beauty. 

9.  Stier,  R.  and  Theile,  K.  G.  W.  Polyglotten-Bihel  zum  prak 
tisahen  Handgehrauch,  etc.  5  vols.  Third  edition  of  the  O.  T., 
and  fourth  edition  N.  T.  Bielefeld.    1863-64. 


BIBLICAL   CRITICISM.  121 

The  Old  Testament  portion  is  especially  valuable.  It  contains 
in  parallel  columns  a  critical  text  of  the  Hebrew,  of  the  Septuagint 
(after  Tischendorfs  edition),  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  of  Lu- 
ther's German  Version.  Very  valuable  also  are  the  critical 
readings  and  revised  renderings  appended  in  foot  notes. 

To  the  more  expensive  works  like  Walton's  Polyglot,  etc.,  we 
have  purposely  not  referred.  We  would  call  especial  attention 
to  the  valuable  works  published  by  Bagster  and  Sons,  London, 

7.     EDITIONS  OF  THE  SEPTUAGINT. 

1.  8eptuagi7it  according  to  the  Vatican  Edition,  The.  Together 
with  the  real  Septuagint  Version  of  Daniel  and  the  Apocrypha, 
including  the  fourth  Book  of  Maccabees,  and  an  Historical  ac- 
count of  the  Septuagint  and  of  the  principal  text  in  which  it  is 
current.    Pp.  958.    Bagster  and  Sons.    London,  1882. 

2.  Septtiagint,  The  Greek.  With  an  English  Translation,  and 
with  various  readings  and  critical  notes.  A  new  edition  speci- 
ally prepared  for  students.  Bagster  and  Sons.   London,  1882, 

It  can  also  be  had  with  the  Apocrypha,  in  one  volume.  An 
historical  account  of  the  Version  is  given  in  the  Introduction, 
and  this  with  the  various  readings  and  notes,  makes  this  edition 
very  valuable. 

3.  Tischendorf,  Const.  Vetus  Testa  mentum  Qraece  Juxta  LXX 
interpretes.    2  volumes.    Sixth  edition.    Leipsic,  1880, 

In  this  latest  edition  Eb.  Xestle  has  rewritten  the  Prolego- 
mena. It  contains  the  variations  of  the  Codices  Alexandri- 
nus,  Vaticanus,  Sinaiticus,  of  Ephrsem,  and  Friderico-Augu- 
stanus.  An  earlier  edition  is  incorporated  in  Stier  and  Theile's 
Polyglotten  Bibel. 

8.      EDITIONS    OF    THE    VULGATE. 

1,  Latin  Bible,  The.  Biblia  Sacra  Vulgatse  editions  Sixti  V.  et 
Clementis  VIII.  Jussu  recognita  atque  edita.  Pp.  773.  Bagster 
and  Sons.    London,  1882. 

2.  Vulgate.  New  Testament,  The.  Compared  with  the  Douay 
Version  of  1582.  Parallel  Columns.  Bagster  and  Sons.  London, 
1882. 

A  very  serviceable  edition  of  the  Douay  Version. 
See  also  Stier  and  Theile's  Folygotte7i-Bibel,  and  the  Greek 
Testaments  of  Lachmann  and  of  Tregelles,  already  noticed. 

9.     MISCELLANEOUS  WORKS  PERTAINING  TO  BIBLICAL   CRITICISM. 

1.  Bibel,  Die  (Sogenannte  Probebibel).  Oder  die  heilige  Schrift  d. 
Alten  u.  Xeuen  Testaments,  nach  der  deutschen  Uebersetzung 
Luthers.  Abdruck  der  im  Auftrage  der  Eisenacher  deutschen 
evang.    Kirchenkonferenz  revidirten  Bibel.    Halle,  1883. 

This  is  the  Revised  German  Bible  printed  for  examination, 
before  it  is  finally  published. 

2.  Bindseil,  H.  C,  und  Niemeyer,  H.  A.  Dr.  Martin  Luther's 
Bibeluebersetzung  nach  der  letzten  Original— Ausgabe,  kritisch 
bearbeitet.    7  volumes.    Halle,  1850 — 55. 

This  edition  gives  the  variations  of  all  the  most  important 
earlier  editions  of  the  German  Revision  of  Luther. 


122  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

3.  Eadie,  John.    The  English  Bible.    2  vols.    London,  1876. 

Full  of  valuable  information. 

4.  Humphry,  W.  G.  A  Commentary  on  the  Revised  Version  of  the 
New  Testament.    London,  Paris  and  New  York,  1882. 

In  brief  notes  the  author,  who  is  a  member  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment Revision  Company,  states  the  reasons  for  the  changes  that 
have  been  made  in  the  Authorised  Version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, with  constant  reference  to  the  renderings  of  the  earlier 
English  versions. 

5.  Massman,  H.  F.  Uljilas.  Die  heiligen  Schriften  Alten  und 
Neuen  Bundes  in  Gothischer  Sprache.  Mit  gegenueberstehen- 
dem  Griechischem  und  Lateinischem  Texte,  Anmerkungen, 
Woerterbuch,  Sprachlehre  und  geschichtlicher  Einleitung. 
Stuttgart,  1857. 

6.  Merrill,  George  E.  The  Story  of  the  Manuscripts.  Third  Edi- 
tion.   Boston,  1881. 

7.  Mombert,  J.  I.  A  Hand-Book  of  the  English  Versions  of  the 
Bible.    New  York  and  London,  1883. 

An  excellent  work. 

8.  Moon,  G.  Washington.  The  Revisers'  English.  With  Photo- 
graphs of  the  Revisers.  A  series  of  Criticisms,  showing  the 
Revisers'  violations  of  the  laws  of  the  language.  Pp.  145.  Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1882. 

The  author  severely  criticises  the  English  of  the  Revised  Ver- 
sion according  to  the  strict  rules  of  modern  grammar,  but  nearly 
all  the  idioms  which  he  criticises  are  found  in  the  old  version, 
and  are  sustained  by  classical  usage. 

9.  Murdock,  -James.  The  New  Testament.  A  literal  translation 
from  the  Syriac  Peshito  Version.    New  York,  1851. 

10.  Scrivener,  F.  H.  The  Cambridge  Paragraph  Bible  of  the 
Authorized  English  Version,  with  the  text  revised  by  a  collation 
of  its  early  and  other  principal  editions,  the  use  of  the  Italic  type 
made  uniform,  the  marginal  references  remodelled,  and  a  critical 
Introduction.  Edited  for  the  Syndics  of  the  University  Press. 
Cambridge.  1873. 

This  is  the  best  critical  edition  of  King  James's  Version. 
Especially  valuable  is  the  Introduction  by  Dr.  Scrivener. 

11.  Thoms,  John  Alexander.  A  Complete  Concordance  to  the  Re- 
vised Version  of  the  New  Testament.  Embracing  the  marginal 
readings  of  the  English  Revisers  as  well  as  those  of  the  Ameri- 
can Committee.    New  York,  1883. 

12.  Versions,  Ancient  and  Moder^i.  Some  of  the  best  editions,  if 
not  the  best,  are  published  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety, and  the  American  Bible  Society. 

13.  Westcott,  Brooke  Foss.  A  general  Vieiv  of  the  History  of  the 
English  Bible,  Second  edition.  Pp.  359.  London  and  Cam- 
bridge, 1872. 

Very  scholarly  and  accurate. 


BIBLICAL  HERMENEUTICS.  123 

SECTION  XLVIII. 

BIBLICAL    HERMENEUTICS. 

Biblical  Hermeneutics  treats  of  the  principles  in  accordance 
with  which  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  to  be  interpreted.  In 
general  these  principles  are  the  same  as  those  which  are  to  be 
applied  to  the  interpretation  of  other  writings.  The  main  dis- 
tinction of  Hermeneutics  turns  not  upon  a  radical  diversity  of 
principles,  but  purely  upon  the  nature  of  the  books  to  whose 
interpretation  the  principles  are  to  be  applied. 

Of  the  various  works  devoted  to  Biblical  Hermeneutics  we 
would  especially  recommend  the  abridged  translation  of  Cellerier's 
Manuel  d'  Hermeneutique  Bihlique.*^  Of  this  work  the  late  Prin- 
cipal Fairbairn,  of  Glan^ow,  says  "that  however  objectionable  in 
respect  to  the  principles  it  occasionally  enunciates,  it  is  one  of  the 
most  systematic  and  complete  in  form".  The  objectionable  prin- 
ciples to  which  Dr.  Fairbairn  alludes,  have  been  eliminated,  and 
others,  especially  on  the  subject  of  inspiration,  have  been  substi- 
tuted by  Dr.  Elliott.    We  here  append  a  brief  outline  of  this  work. 

§  1—25.    Introduction. 

%  1 — 4.    Nature  of  Hermeneutics. 
§  1.    Kelation  of  Hermeneutics  to  Exegetical  Theology. 

Isagogics  and  Criticism  of  the  Text  precede  Hermeneutics, 
and  after  these  three  successive  processes  have  been  finished, 
the  Biblical  interpreter  enters  upon  his  work— Exegesis. 
§  2.    Definition  of  Hermeneutics  and  distinctions. 

Hermeneutics  is  the  science  which  teaches  the  principles 
of  interpretation.  Biblical  Hermeneutics  is  the  science 
which  determines  the  principles  of  the  interpretation  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures.  This  science  must  not  be  confounded 
with  Isagogics,  and  must  also  be  distinguished  from  Exe- 
gesis. Exegesis  is  the  practice  of  an  art;  Hermeneutics  is 
the  science  that  governs  that  art. 
§  3.    Distinctions  continued. 

To  that  part  which  is  methodical  and  scientific,  we  give 
the  name  of  Formal  Hermeneutics ;  that  which  is  not,  we 
denominate  Material  Hermeneutics,  which  consists  chiefly 
of  scattered  attempts,  and  does  not  belong  to  the  elementary 
and  methodical  science  necessary  to  every  theologian  in- 
trusted with  the  duty  of  expounding  the  Scriptures. 

Foi^mal  Hermeneutics  seeks  methodically,  not  for  results, 
but  for  the  rules  and  principles  by  means  of  which  one  may 
find  the  results. 


*    Cellerier,  J.  E.  Biblical  Hermeneutics.    Chiefly  a  translation,  etc.,  by  Charles 
Elliott  and  William  J.  Harsha.    New  York,  1881. 


124  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Some  have  distinguished  General  from  Special  Herme- 
neutics.  General  Hermeneutics  which  embraces  the  entire 
science  and  lays  the  foundations  of  the  true  method  of 
interpretation  and  establishes  the  general  principles  of  all 
interpretation,  will  here  be  treated. 

§  4.    Importance  of  Hermeneutics. 

As  Formal-General  Hermeneutics  furnishes  to  the  theo- 
logian his  methods  of  interpretation,  it  decides  to  a  certain 
degree,  the  systems  of  dogmatics,  instruction  in  religion,  the 
faith  of  the  people,  and  often  the  peace  of  the  Church.  It 
aspires  to  nothing  less  than  to  be  the  key  of  the  Sacred 
Books,  unlocking  all  the  science  and  learning  founded 
upon  them. 

§  5—12.    History  of  Ilermeneutical  Principles. 
§  5.    First  Period.— From  the  time  of  the  Apostles  until  the 
time  of  Origen. — First  and  second  centuries. 

During  this  era  Hermeneutics  did  not  exist,  as  the  Church 
of  this  era  was  so  near  to  the  time  of  the  preaching  of  the 
Apostles  and  of  the  publications  of  their  writings,  that 
these  were  sufficiently  perspicuous  and  fully  explained  by 
the  oral  traditions  so  carefully  sought  for  at  that  time. 
§  6.  Second  Period.— The  Fathers  of  the  Church.  -  From 
Origen  to  the  Middle  Ages,  i.  e.,  the  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  centuries. 

Certain  principles  of  interpretation  are  discerned  in  the 
writings  of  the  Fathers,  but  these  principles  are  not  form- 
ulated.   The  more  prominent  are  the  following: 

1)  The  divinity  of  the  Bible. 

2)  The  multiple  sense  of  the  Bible.  Confounding  the 
uses  which  may  be  made  of  a  passage  of  Scripture  with  its 
meaning,  thev  adopted  a  variety  of  senses,  which  they 
classed  under  the  following  categories:  grammatical, 
moral,  mystical,  and  allegorical. 

3)  The  mystic  force  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

These  three  principles  were  universally  admitted  in  this 
era.  The  immense  inliuence  of  Origen's  writings  intro- 
duced them  into  general  use.  Augustine,  d.  430,  introduced 
into  the  practice  of  interpretation,  three  new  elements:  1) 
the  qualifications  necessary  to  the  interpreter,  2)  the  anal- 
ogy of  faith,  and  3)  the  authority  of  tradition. 

§  7.  Third  Period.— The  Middle  Ages.— From  sixth  to  fif- 
teenth century.  During  this  period  Hermeneutics  still 
remained  without  the  shape  of  a  science;  but  all  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  preceding  era  were  put  in  practice.  Two 
elements  were  introduced:  1)  the  authority  of  tradition,  and 
2)  the  continued  inspiration  of  the  leaders  of  the  Church. 

§  8.  Fourth  Period.— The  Reformation.  The  Reformation 
was  destined  to  exercise,  and  did  exercise,  an  immense 
infiuence  upon  Hermeneutics.  This  infiuence  had  a  twofold 
character,  general  and  intellectual,  special  and  biblical. 
The  authority  of  tradition  was  annihilated,  and  the  mul- 
tiple senses  were  diminished.  The  following  new  prin- 
ciples were  developed  by  the  aid  of  the  Reformation; 


BIBLICAL  HERMENEUTICS.  125 

1)  Theopneusty,  or  inspiration  taken  in  its  absolute  sense. 

2)  The  analogy  of  faith,  which  reg-iilates  the  interpreta- 
tion of  each  passage  in  conformity  with  the  whole  tenor  of 
revealed  truth. 

3)  The  comparative  study  of  the  Scriptures.  This  new 
tendency,  of  comparing  Scripture  with  Scripture,  did  more 
than  anything  else  to  prepare  a  conscientious  and  logical 
exegesis,  and  began  the  work  of  placing  Hermeneutics  up- 
on its  true  foundation. 

9.  Fifth  Period.— Seventeenth  century. 

The  Socinians  wished  to  subject  revelation  to  reason; 
the  Quakers,  at  the  other  extreme,  made  the  same  mistake 
in  wishing  to  subject  the  written  Word  to  the  "Inner 
Word''  that  is,  to  an  individual  revelation. 

10.  Sixth  Period.— Keactions  and  struggles  during  the  first 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  In  this  era  we  must  dis- 
tinguish three  schols  of  very  different  principles: 

1)  The  Logical  School,  the  successor  of  the  Arminians 
and  of  Grotius,  was  especially  represented  bv  two  distin- 
guished men,  Le  Clerc  and  J.  A.  Turretin.  tired  ofCoc- 
ceianism  and  of  imaginary  senses,  this  School  adopted 
the  principle  that  the  Holy  Scriptures,  ought  to  be 
explained  like  other  books,  by  the  aid  of  logic  and  analysis. 

2)  The  Fietistie  School.  Spener  and  Francke  are  the 
representatives  of  this  School.  They  demanded  two  things 
of  the  interpreter  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  both  of  which  are 
of  great  importance  in  the  accomplishment  of  his  task. 
The  first,  is  sufficient  learning;  and  the  second,  feelings  in 
harmony  with  those  of  the  writer,  whom  he  wished  to  un- 
derstand and  interpret.  This  school  has  been  accused  of 
mysticism;  and  it  may  not  be  entirely  free  from  the  charge. 

3)  The  NcdumUstic  School.  The  naturalists,  or  disciples 
of  a  purely  natural  religion,  should  be  distinguished  from 
the  rationalists.  The  German  naturalists  of  the  eighteenth 
century  were  distinguished  from  the  French  deists  only  by 
a  more  scientific  character;  and  from  the  English  deists 
only  by  their  theological  pretensions. 

11.  Seventh  Period.— The  Scientific  era.  Latter  part  of 
the  eighteenth  and  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  centuries. 
From  this  time  we  must  seek  chiefly  in  Germany  for 
activity  in  the  department  of  Hermeneutics,  which  is 
represented  by  two  great,  opposite  schools— ^7ie  Oram- 
matical  and  the  Historical. 

The  founder  of  the  School  of  Grammatical  Hermeneutics 
was  Ernesti,  who  based  sound  interpretation  upon  the 
philological  study  of  the  text,  conducted  in  a  conscientious, 
profound,  and  learned  manner.  The  founder  of  it  and  his 
disciples  were,  g<  n^-rally  speaking,  conscientious  and  pious 
theologians.  But  this  method  wms  evidently  insufficient  as 
it  was  able  to  attain  only  to  a  pure  and  simple  interpreta- 
tion of  the  text,  which  is  not  always  enough  for  its 
exposition. 

The  founder  of  the  Historical  School  was  Semler,  who, 
although  of  a  religious  and  sincere  character,  was  yet  the 


126  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

real  father  of  German  Kationalism.  The  fundamental 
principle  of  this  school  was  the  exposition  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  by  the  facts,  the  usages,  and  the  prejudices  of 
the  times. 

In  the  development  of  rationalism  we  may  distinguish 
three  principal  hermeneutical  phases: 

1)  The  old,  stiff  rationalism  represented  by  Paulus,  ex- 
plaining all  the  miracles  by  natural  causes. 

2)  Logical  rationalism,  represented  by  Wegscheider,  lay- 
ing down  the  principle  that  the  Bible  has  no  authority,  and 
that  it  contains  less  truth  than  error. 

3)  Pietistic  rationalism,  represented  by  De  Wette,  assign- 
ing great  value  to  faith,  but  placing  its  foundation  else- 
where than  in  the  Bible. 

§  12.  Eighth  Period.— Present  era.  Both  the  Grammatical 
School  and  the  Historical  School  still  exist,  but  they  are  less 
rigid  and  less  exclusive. 

The  grammatical  school  has  become  much  more  profound 
in  philology;  it  accomplishes  its  task  with  more  exactness 
and  intelligence, — in  particular,  it  no  longer  tolerates  a  bold 
and  reckless  exegesis. 

The  enfeebled  historical  school  seeks  aid  more  than  for- 
merly from  philological  knowledge,  and  devotes  itself  less 
to  hypotheses. 

Exegetes,  however,  are  beginning  to  recognize,  that  these 
two  methods,  even  when  united,  are  insufficient,  and  that 
the  interpreter  has  need  of  other  resources.  In  particular 
it  is  required  of  him  that  he  should  possess  dispositions  in 
harmony  with  those  of  the  authors  whose  writings  he  in- 
terprets. 

Hermeneutics,  as  a  science,  is  not  yet  fully  developed,  but 
practical  Hermeneutics,  or  Exegesis,  has  made  immense 
progress  and  the  art  has  far  outstripped  the  science.  Exe- 
gesis has  become  conscientious,  j  udicious,  methodical,  ac- 
tive and  learned. 

§  13—22.    The  Unity  of  the  Sense  of  Scripture. 
§  13.    The  State  of  the  Question. 

Some  pretend  that  Scripture  has  many  senses,  that  each 
passage  can  be  understood  in  very  dilferent  ways,  all  equ- 
ally conformed  to  the  divine  thought. 
§14.    Examination  a  _p;'^o^i. 

How  can  we  suppose  a  double  sense  in  Scripture  V  Shall 
we  impute  ignorance  to  God  ?  Or  will  He  be  guilty  of  de- 
ception, error,  or  voluntary  obscurity  V  By  assigning  a  dou- 
ble sense  to  Scripture,  we  attribute  to  the  Divine  legislator 
a  course  of  conduct  which  would  excite  indignation  against 
a  human  legislator,  and  the  admission  of  such  a  hypothesis 
would  produce  consequences  as  disastrous  as  wide-spread. 
§  15.  Consequences  of  the  Hypothesis  of  a  multiple  sense. 

1)  The  problem  of  interpretation  becomes  indetermin- 
ate. 

2)  In  this  case  tie  Bible  is  not  considered  as  given  to 
man  to  instruct,  to  edify  and  direct  him;   but  as  given  to 


BIBLICAL  HERMENEUTICS.  127 

the  theologian  to  furnish  a  field  for  the  display  of  his  wit 
and  vanity. 

3)  It  supposes  and  establishes  a  profound  and  radical  dis- 
tinction between  the  logical  methods  which  God  has  given 
us  m  order  to  discover  the  truth,  and  the  methods  to  be  fol- 
lowed in  the  interpretation  of  Scripture. 

4)  The  Bible  becomes  a  changeable,  doubtful  rule  of  faith, 
flexible  at  the  will  of  the  fancies  or  the  passions  of  men. 

5)  The  simple  and  transparent  beautv  of  the  Sacred  Book 
gives  place  to  a  mass  of  human  fancies,  and  of  mystical, 
allegorical,  scholastic,  philosophical,  physical  and  astrono- 
mical glosses,  sometimes  ingenious  and  witty,  but  not  the 
simple,  clear  and  edifying  truth  of  God's  Word. 

§  16.    Examination  a  posteriori. 

The  Biblical  facts,  upon  which  reliance  has  been  placed 
to  defend  the  theory  of  a  multiple  sense,  are  of  very  diff- 
erent kinds.  They  may  be  distinguished  into  pUloloqical, 
symbolical,  prophetical  and  typical  facts. 

^  ^^'n.  Philological  facts,  ^^  e.,  those  pertaining  to  language. 
There  are  some  passages  so  obscure  as  to  be  susceptible  of 
several  senses,  and  hence  it  has  been  concluded  that  such 
passages  possess  several  senses,  or  a  double  sense.  But  the 
obscurity  lies  m  the  feebleness  of  the  human  mind,  not  in 
Kevelation.  In  such  instances,  of  the  several  senses,  which 
may  seem  to  be  equally  plausible  and  to  fulfil  equally  the 
requirements  of  exegesis,  only  one  can  be  the  true  one. 

In  the  case  of  metaphorical,  poetical,  and  parabolical 
forms  of  speech,  w^hich  convey  a  meaning  different  from 
that  of  the  literal  sense  of  the  words,  there  are  not  two 
senses,  the  hteral  and  the  metaphorical,  but  the  metaphori- 
cal IS  alone  the  real  sense;  the  literal  does  not  exist  as  a 
sense;  it  is  only  the  vehicle  of  the  former. 

§  18.    Symbolical  facts. 

We  here  refer  especially  to  the  symbolical  actions  of 
the  prophets— a  means  wholly  Oriental— which  they  em- 
ployed to  impress  the  imagination  and  to  fix  firmly  in  the 
memory  the  future  events  thus  announced.  Acts  of  this 
kind  are  very  frequent  with  some  prophets;  but  the  pro- 
phet himself  took  care  to  explain  them;  the  sense,  far  from 
being  multiple,  was  very  positive,  and  attained  its  object 
only  on  this  condition. 

§  19.    Prophetical  facts. 

Prophecies  oftentimes  appear  susceptible  of  different  solu- 
tions though  from  the  nature  of  revelation,  they  can  be 
clearly  understood  only  after  the  event.  Interpreters  who 
have  not  discovered  the  key  to  the  obscurities  of  prophecy 
—that  events  of  the  same  nature,  which  might  appertain  to 
times  very  different,  often  presented  themselves  to  the  pro- 
phet as  connected  in  time,  and  as  types,  one  of  the  other  — 
have  been  led  to  the  conclusion  that  such  prophecies  have 
at  the  same  time,  two  objects  and  two  senses. 

So  likewise,  the  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in 
the  :Newhave  occasioned  much  difficulty  to  Biblical  critics 
But  we  must  not  forget  that  the  writers  of  the  :N"ew  Testa- 


128  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

ment  quote  parts  from  the  Old  with  very  different  views, 
and  we  must  attend,  therefore,  to  their  real  view  in  a  par- 
ticular quotation.  An  accurate  distinction  must  be  made 
between  such  quotations  as,  being  merely  borrowed,  are 
used  as  the  words  of  the  writer  himself,  and  such  as  are 
quoted  in  proof  of  a  doctrine,  cr  the  completion  of  a  pro- 
phecy. 

§  20.  Typical  facts. 

Upon  these  those  theologians,  who  advocate  the  double 
sense,  rely  with  the  greatest  confidence.  Many  of  the  events, 
personages,  and  institutions  of  the  Old  Testament  were  de- 
signed by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  typify  and  predict  events,  per- 
sonages, and  institutions  of  the  Xew.  These  are  called 
types,  a^nd  their  corresponding  objects  in  the  New  are  called 
antitypes.  Admitting  the  existence  of  such  types,  the 
theory  of  a  double  sense  does  not  follow.  For  there  is  an 
essential  difference  between  the  nature  of  type  and  anti- 
type. The  typical  is  divine  truth  on  a  lower  stage,  exhib- 
ited by  means  of  outward  relations  and  terrestrial  interests; 
the  antitypical  is  divine  truth  on  a  higher  stage,  with  a 
more  heavenly  aspect.  Types  lend  no  aid  to  the  theory 
of  a  double  sense. 

§  21.    Results  of  these  facts. 

Nothing  is  found  to  support  the  theory  of  a  double  sense. 

§  22.    Tendencies  which  have  favored  the  theory  of  a  double 
sense. 

There  are  three  tendencies  which  have  favored  the  theory 
of  a  double  sense. 

1)  An  intellectual  tendency.  This  tendency  is  developed 
by  those  theologians  who  lack  methodical,  logical  and  phi- 
losophical spirit,  and  who  are  inclined  to  prefer  the  imagi- 
nation to  reason,  the  ingenious  to  the  true,  the  new  to  the 
useful.  The  imagination  is  sometimes  unduly  excited  by  the 
study  of  theology,  especially  when  it  treats  of  prophecies 
and  miracles. 

2)  A  moral  tendency,  or  the  absence  of  a  humble  and  pro- 
found love  of  truth.  It  is  a  common  thing  to  meet  with  in- 
terpreters who  are  possessed  with  the  desire  to  dazzle  by 
the  novelty  of  their  interpretations,  and  who,  wedded  to  a 
system,  have  resource  to  forced  expositions  for  the  purpose 
of  harmonizing  it  with  embarrassing  passages. 

3)  Religious  tendency,— a  want  of  faith.  When  an  inter- 
preter of  the  Holy  Scriptures  seeks  any  other  sense  than 
that  which  naturally  presents  itself,  he  often  does  it  because 
that  sense  is  repugnant  to  his  convictions. 

We  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  theory  of  a  multiple 
sense  is  without  foundation,  that  the  Scripture  has  a  sense 
unique,  positive,  and  capable  of  being  investigated.    This 
being  admitted  renders  Hermeneutics  a  possible  science. 
§  23—25.    Natural  division  of  Hermeneutics. 
§  23.    General  reflections. 

Hermeneutics  is  the  science  which  furnishes  the  true 
principles  of  interpretation.  Biblical  Hermeneutics  is  oc- 
cupied in  the  interpretation  of  the  Bible.    To  attain  a  full 


BIBLICAL  HERMENEUTICS.  129 

interpretation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  the  interpreter  must 
perform  successively  different  operations  upon  their  con- 
tents. 
§  24.    Analysis  of  the  elements  of  the  science. 

First  of  all,  it  is  necessary,  that  the  interpreter  should 
have  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  precise  meaning  of  the 
words  and  phrases  with  which  he  meets  in  the  original  lan- 
guages of  the  Bible.  The  collection  of  the  rules  which  guide 
the  interpreter  in  this  part  of  his  task  is  called  Grammati- 
eai  Herineneutics. 

But  something  more  than  the  grammatical  sense  is  ne- 
cessary. The  interpreter  must  take  into  consideration  the 
influence  exercised  upon  the  writer  by  means  of  the  cir- 
cumstances of  position,  time,  country,  and,  in  general,  by 
means  of  his  external  relations.  The  collective  body  of 
rules  drawn  from  this  source  constitutes  Historical  Her- 
meneutics. 

But  even  this  will  not  suffice.  AVe  must  add  a  class  of 
rules  deduced  from  the  general  study  of  the  Bible  itself,  and 
from  a  special  study  of  its  several  portions,  and  this  depart- 
inent  we  call  i:icri}kiiral  ffermenetitics.  ' 

But  the  science  of  Hermeneutics  is  not  yet  complete.  We 
must  search  for  and  determine  the  divine  revelation  made 
known  to  us  in  Scripture,  and  this  part  of  our  inquiry  we 
designate  Doctrinal  Hermeneutics. 
§  25.  Conditions  necessary  to  the  prosecution  of  the  science. 
There  are  certain  dispositions  which  an  interpreter  should 
possess,  and  the  investigation  of  these  conditions  we 
denominate  Psychological  Hermeneutics. 

PART   FIRST.      PSYCHOLOGICAL   HERMENEUTICS. 

§  26.    Its  necessity. 

Psychological  Hermeneutics  is  the  investigation  of  the 
moral  and  intellectual  conditions,  devoid  of  which  the 
interpreter  is  incapable  of  accomplishing  his  task.  The 
normal  condition,  which  we  require  of  the  interpreter  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  appears  to  us  to  be  composed  of /aci<Ztie*\ 
tendencies  or  dispositions,  and  principles. 

27, 28.    Faculties    with    which    the    interpreter   should    be 
endowed. 

§  27.    Intellectual  Faculties. 

The  interpreter  has  need  of  a  clear  and  vigorous  under- 
standing, sound  judgment,  and  a  certain  degree  of  imagina- 
tion. The  excess  of  imagination,  is,  perhaps  more  to  be  feared 
in  religious  science  than  elsewhere,  because  this  science  tends 
to  exalt  this  facultv.  What  is  most  useful  to  the  theologian 
is  the  equilibrium  of  all  his  faculties,  rather  than  the  exces- 
sive and  isolated  development  of  a  few. 

§  28.    Moral  Faculties. 

The  Scriptures  were  evidently  written  as  much  for  the 
heart  as  for  the  intellect.  The  interpreter,  therefore,  in 
order  to  accomplish  the  duties  of  his  office,  should  possess 


130  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

sensibility.    He  should  seek  the  aid  of  his  heart,  and  not 
bind  himself  slavishly  to  the  requirements  of  logic, 

§  29—31.    Dispositions  necessary  to  the  interpreter. 

§  29.    Love  of  truth. 

The  first  disposition  which  the  interpreter  ought  to  culti- 
vate is  the  love  of  truth. 

1)  The  interpreter  should,  if  possible,  undertake  the  task 
of  interpretation  without  preconceived  opinions.  He 
should  be  desirous  above  all  to  discover  the  truth,  and 
disposed  to  modify  his  ideas  in  accordance  with  the  result 
of  his  examination. 

2)  To  impartiality  of  mind  the  interpreter  should  join 
impartiality  of  heart. 

3)  The  interpreter  should  be  not  only  impartial  and  dis- 
interested, but  also,  so  far  as  corrupt  human  nature  will 
allow,  morally  perfect. 

§  30.    Search  for  clear  ideas. 

The  second  disposition  required  of  the  interpreter  is  the 
desire  to  acquire  clear  ideas. 

The  means  to  attain  clearness  is  study  and  meditation. 
In  those  matters  of  religion  which  surpass  intelligence,  the 
interpreter  ought  to  comprehend  clearly  the  fact  that  they 
do  surpass  it,  but  the  fact  that  they  do  surpass  intel- 
ligence should  not  hinder  us  from  believing  them,  for  we 
can  and  do  believe  many  things  which  are  above  reason. 

§  31.    Faith  and  Piety. 

The  interpreter,  in  order  to  accomplish  his  task  well,  has 
need  of  faith  and  piety.  The  irreligious  interpreter  is 
morally  unfit  for  the  task  of  biblical  interpretation.  The 
interpreter  must  be  conscientious,  circumspect,  and  labor- 
ious. He  ought  constantly  to  mistrust  his  passions  and 
opinions,  and  also  be  diftident  of  his  ability  and  even  of  his 
success. 
§  32,  33.    Duties  of  the  interpreter. 

§  32.    His  studies  ought  to  embrace  the  entire  Bible  and  be 
frequentlv  repeated. 

Every  theologian  ought  to  be  an  exegete.  But  many  read 
only  certain  portions  of  the  Bible.  Many  read  superficially, 
without  stopping  to  examine  and  elucidate  obscure  passages. 
Many  neglect  the  original  texts.  Meditation  and  constant 
study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  absolutely  necessary  to 
refresh,  nourish  and  render  clear,  vivid,  and  fruitful,  the 
knowledge  and  religious  convictions  of  the  theologian. 
Nor  dare  this  study  be  ever  interrupted. 

§  33.    His  studies  ought  to  be  continued  with  distrust  of  one's 
self  and  with  a  feeling  of  one's  own  weakness. 

Luther  said  Oratio,  meditatio,  te^itatio  faciunt  theologum. 
Prayer,  study,  and  experience,— these  are  the  means  of 
theological  study, 


BIBLICAL  HERMENEUTICS.  131 

PART  SECOND.    GRAMMATICAL  HERMENEUTICS. 

§  34—37.    Difficulties. 
§  34.    IS'ature  of  the  task. 

The  interpreter  should  begin  his  work  by  studying  the 
grammatical  sense  of  the  text,  with  the  aid  of  Sacred 
Philology.  This  task  is  far  from  being  so  easy  as  it  might, 
at  first,  appear.  Every  dictionary,  it  is  true,  professes  to 
give  the  sense  of  words,  but  dictionaries  are  not  infallible, 
and  in  the  interpretation  of  a  special  passage,  we  need  not 
the  general  sense  of  a  word  so  much  as  its  precise  import, 
with  its  shades  of  meaning,  and  its  degree  of  intensity. 

§  35.    Want  of  sufficient  analogy  between  languages. 

There  is  seldom  an  identitv  of  sense  between  the  corres- 
ponding words  of  different  languages;  between  the  English 
word,  for  example,  and  the  corresponding  Hel)rew  or  Greek 
word.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  chief  theological  terms. 
§  36.  Variations  in  the  sense  of  words.  Diversities  of  sense 
also  exist  between  the  different  modes  of  employing  the 
same  words  in  the  same  languages,  especially  in  the  biblical 
languages. 

1)   These  variations  often  pertain  to  the  abstract  and 

mysterious  sense  of  certain  expressions,  as  logos,  psuche. 

^)  Many  words  come  to  express  several  divergent  ideas, 

in  consequence  of  different  circumstances,  or  of  etymology. 

3)  Others  are  modified  by  hyperbole,  emphasis,  or  the 
usage  of  the  I^ew  Testament. 

4)  Figures  are  a  fruitful  source  of  new  variations,  either 
when  the  same  word  is  taken  sometimes  in  its  proper  sense, 
and  sometimes  in  a  figurative  sense;  or  when  it  is  em- 
ployed in  two  distinct  figurative  senses. 

§  37.  Special  nature  of  the  languages  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
The  interpreter  of  the  Holv  Scriptures  is  required,  in  the 
prosecution  of  his  work,  to  translate  from  two  different 
languages,  one  of  which  belongs  to  the  Semitic  family,  and 
the  other  to  the  Indo-European.  This  fact  increases  the 
difficulties  of  his  task.  It  is  not  with  dictionaries,  formulas, 
and  confessions  of  faith  alone,  that  the  interpreter  can  ac- 
complish his  work  even  in  Grammatical  Hermeneutics. 
He  will  be  successful  only  with  the  moral  and  intellectual 
qualifications  that  we  have  mentioned  in  Psychological 
Hermeneutics.  To  these  he  must  unite  the  employment  of 
the  best  methods  and  all  the  scientific  and  philosophical 
precautions  at  his  command. 

38—61.    Kesources  and  duties. 
§  38.    Considered  generally. 

Grammatical  Hermeneutics  furnishes  resources  and  duties 
derived  from  the  following  sources: 

1)  Prom  the  text  itself. 

2)  Prom  the  context. 

3)  Prom  the  parallel  texts. 

4)  Prom  the  materials  foreign  to  the  text. 


132  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

We  are  here  discussing  Grammatical  Hermeneutics,  but 
it  should  be  born  in  mind  that,  even  for  the  simple  determi- 
nation of  the  sense  of  the  words,  Historical  and  Scriptural 
Hermeneutics  are  also  useful,  and  in  reality,  the  different 
elements  entering  into  the  interpreter's  task  mutually  act 
and  react  and  even  interpenetrate. 
§  39—50.  Resources  derived  from  the  text. 
§  39.    Employment  of  the  original  texts. 

It  seems  supertluous  to  affirm  that  the  divine  who  has  un- 
dertaken to  interpret  the  Bible,  ought  to  consult  habitually 
the  original  texts.  But  this  is  neglected  by  many  theo- 
logians. Versions  are  valuable  to  the  theologian,  but  they 
can  simply  approximate,  more  or  less  closely,  the  precision 
and  clearness  of  the  original.  The  man  who  reads  the 
original  text  with  attention,  with  the  requisite  knowl- 
edge and  disposition,  discovers  very  frequently  some  new 
point  of  view,  some  unforeseen  intention,  some  profound 
and  suggestive  allusion,  some  new  and  precious  element  in 
the  thought  of  the  Sacred  author. 

In  the  study  of  the  text  of  Scripture,  a  distinction  can  be 
made  between  the  study  of  the  w^ords,  that  of  the  construc- 
tions, and  that  of  the  discourse. 

A.    §  40—43.    Study  of  the  words. 

§  40.    Ordinary  resources  of  Philology. 

1.  Grammatical  Science.  This  requires  no  explanation 
and  has  no  need  of  development. 

2.  Etymology.  The  study  of  etymology  is  an  attractive 
resource,  souietimes  leadmg  to  reliable  results,  but  fre- 
quently to  extravagance.  In  fact,  it  may  be  affirmed,  that 
etymological  analysis  never  gives  entire  certainty. 

3.  Employment  of  Cognate  languages.  The  study  of 
Classic  Greek  in  relation  to  the  New  Testament,  and  of  the 
different  Aramaic  and  Arabian  dialects  for  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, will  render  important  service  to  the  interpreter,  if  he 
can  avoid  the  abuse  of  them.  Let  him  not  seek  for  the 
ingenious,  the  brilliant,  and  the  new  in  preference  to  the 
true. 

4.  Special  study  of  the  variations  of  sense. 
This  requires  especial  attention  (see  §  36). 

§  41.    Study  of  the   Special    lauguage  of  the    New    Testa- 
ment. 
(See  Hellenistic-Greek  Language,  p.  83). 
§  42.    Rules  and  suggestions. 

The  following  principles,  at  once  practical  and  general, 
should  be  remembered  by  the  the  interpreter: 

1)  The  strictly  classical  interpretations  and  analogies  are 
to  he  used  with  great  caution. 

2)  The  Old  Testament,  its  spirit  and  its  language,  ought 
always  to  be  present  to  the  thought  of  the  interpreter.  In 
it,  however,  there  are  also  many  sources  of  danger,  to 
which  we  shall  again  revert. 

3)  There  should  be,  above  all,  a  desire  in  the  Christian 
heart  to  determine  the  true  and  profound  sense  of   the 


BIBLICAL  HERMENEUTICS.  133 

Christian  words,  for  Grammatical  Ilermeneutics  is  con- 
fessedly insutlicient  for  this  task,— and  this  can  be  accom- 
plished^ mainly  by  constant  meditation  upon  the  :N'ew  Tes- 
tament. 

4)  The  theologian,  finally,  should  acquire  the  habit  of  de- 
riving benefit  from  the  recent  philological  works,  which 
throw  light  upon  the  original  languages  of  the  Bible. 
Commentaries,  like  those  of  Meyer  and  Ellicott  on  the 
New  Testament,  and  Keil  and  Delitzsch  on  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, should  be  consulted  with  reference  to  the  philologi- 
cal interpretation. 

48.    Diversity  of  language  among  the  Sacred  authors. 
There  are  several  causes  of  this  diversity: 

1)  In  respect  to  the  Old  Testament,  the  time  and  place  of 
writing  exert  more  or  less  influence.  There  is  some  differ- 
ence in  the  use  of  words,  the  style,  and  even  the  grammar 
between  the  times  of  Moses,  of  David  and  Solomon,  of  the 
later  prophets,  and  the  Chaldaizing  writers. 

2)  The  different  kinds  of  writings  (historical,  oratorical, 
didactic,  prophetical,  practical)  cause  the  employment  of 
different  styles. 

3)  The  different  individualities  cause  the  preference  of 
certain  words,  the  attaching  of  certain  senses  to  them,  and 
the  employment  of  certain  favorite  forms  and  images.  In 
the  Old  Testament  compare  the  language  of  Isaiah  with 
that  of  Amos,  or  of  Ezekiel  with  that  of  Micah.  But  in 
the  Xew  Testament  this  demands  the  most  careful  atten- 
tion of  the  interpreter.  Paul,  John  and  James  form,  in 
this  respect,  three  striking  individualities. 

4)  There  are  souietimes  purely  linguistic  habits  which 
modify  the  language  of  the  different  authors.  Thus  it  is 
said,  that  St.  John  never  employs  the  optative. 

§  44—49.    Study  of  constructions. 
§  44.    Considered  generally. 

The  profound  study  of  syntax  is  evidently  another  fun- 
damental element  in  the  science  of  interpretation.  But  syn- 
tax itself  is  subject  to  variations.  These  variations  may 
pertain: 

1)  To  the  time,  the  place,  the  people,  or  the  dialect 
[Idioms). 

2)  To  the  inaccuracies  of  language  {Anomalies). 

3)  To  the  influences  of  thought  which  modify  the  con- 
struction without  changing  the  sense  {Exceptions  of  form). 

4)  To  the  influences  of  sentiment  which  modify  the  sense 
without  changing  the  construction  {Augmentations  of 
sense). 

§  45.    Idioms. 

The  Old  Testament  presents  in  almost  every  line  construc- 
tions peculiar  to  the  Hebrew  language.  The  interpreter 
should  study  these  different  idioms  separately  and  carefully. 
The  great  importance  of  understanding  these  Hebraisms  is 
still  more  evident,  when  we  take  into  consideration  how 
frequent  they  are  in  the  Greek  New  Testament.    On  the 


134  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

other  hand,  he  ought  to  possess  the  rare  faculty  of  using 
without  abusing  this  kind  of  interpretation. 

§  46.    Anomalies. 

Almost  all  the  Xew  Testament  authors  were  unlettered 
men,  who  had  not  made  style  and  grammar  a  special  study. 
Hence  we  can  detect  here  and  there  ambiguities  of  expres- 
sion,—resulting  from  an  unexpected  change  of  subject,  or 
from  a  pronoun  being  too  far  removed  from  its  subject,  or 
because  the  writer  adopts  at  the  close  of  a  sentence,  a  con- 
struction different  from  that  wath  which  he  set  out,  etc. 

§  47.    Exceptions  of  form. 

There  are  also  several  variations  of  the  I^ew  Testament 
writers  from  the  classic  Greek,  due  to  the  vivacity  of 
thought  and  the  subject  matter  of  revelation. 

§  48.    Augmentations  of  sense. 

The  sentiment  of  the  author,  without  changing  anything 
in  the  words,  may  change  their  value  and  impress  upon 
them  a  force  that  the  interpreter  ought  not  to  forget.  An 
example  of  this  is  found  in  Hy2^erhole,  which  is  a  figure  of 
speech,  ])y  which  the  writer  reveals  the  overflow  of  the 
sentiment  within  him  (John  21:  25).  The  reverse  has  place 
in  the  figure  called  Meiosis,  wherein  the  phrase  conveys  in 
reality  much  more  than  it  seems  to  express  ("for  this  were 
unprofitable  for  you"  i.  e.,  ityurioiis,  Heb.  13:  17;  also  "for 
I  am  not  ashamed  of  the  gospel."  Rom.  1:  16). 
'  §  49.    Rules. 

1)  Negative  rule.  Do  not  regard  an  expre  >sion  as  figurative 
without  proof,  or  at  least  without  very  strong  probability. 
The  most  natural,  most  positive  signification  ought,  other 
things  being  equal,  to  be  preferred. 

2)  Positive  rule.  That  expression  may  be  regarded  as 
hyperbolical  or  emphatic,  or  the  ordinary  sense  may  be 
considered  as  otherwise  modified,  when  there  would  result 
from  the  literal  sense  a  physical  or  moral  impossibility  or  a 
meaning  contradicted  by  the  context. 

C.       §  50.    Study  of  the  phrases  and  the  discourse. 

§  50.    Modifications  of  the  general  sense  of  the  phrases. 
Such  modifications  may  take  place  through  oxymoron, 
irony,  or  an  interrogation.   Every  conscientious  interpreter 
will  diligently  examine  a  given  phrase  before  admitting  it 
to  be  a  case  of  irony  or  an  interrogation,  where  a  positive 
interpretation  would  give  an  opposite  sense. 
§  51—56.    Resources  derived  from  the  Context. 
§  51.    Considered  generally. 

The  study  of  the  context  is  the  most  legitmate,  eflicacious, 
and  trustworthy  resource  at  the  command  of  the  inter- 
preter. It  pertains  at  once  to  Grammatical  and  to  Scrip- 
tural Hermeneutics.  The  benefits  derived  from  the  study 
of  the  context  may  be  grouped  under  a  few  principal  heads. 
§  52.  Determination  of  vague  words  and  variable  senses. 
The  study  of  the  context  is  not  only  the  best,  but  almost 
the  only,  means  of  certainty  in  such  cases,  e.  g.,  the  meaning 
of  the  ^Nox<\^  pstiche  aadpistis. 


BIBLICAL   HERMENEUTICS.  135 

§  53.    Determination  of  the  local  and  g-eneral  senses. 

Every  book  has  a  promi)ting-  motive  for  its  existence,  and 
of  this  motive  the  interpreter  ought  to  have  a  clear  and 
positive  knowledge,  founded  on  an  analysis  of  the  facts. 
The  interpreter's  task  is  not  performed  until  he  has  found 
this  sentiment,  by  examining-  the  local  and  general  context. 
This  is  particularly  essential  to  the  understanding  of  Paul's 
writings. 

§  54.    Determination  of  obscure  phrases. 

Obscurities  of  sense  arise  either  from  peculiarities  of 
idiom,  or  from  irregular  constructions,  or  from  modifica- 
tions in  the  form  of  words  or  phrases.  The  context  is 
often  the  only  means  at  the  disposal  of  the  interpreter  to 
throw  light  upon  these  perplexing  passages. 

§  55.    Faults  of  interpreters  with  reference  to  the  context. 

1)  Negligence.  The  context,  the  natural  and  logical  re- 
source of  the  interpreter,  has  often  not  been  sufficiently 
appreciated  nor  employed. 

2)  Exaggeration.  Sometynes,  on  the  other  hand,  too  much 
importance  has  been  given  to  the  context.  Generally  the 
dogmatical  school  has  fallen  into  the  error  of  negligence, 
while  exaggeration  is  predicable  of  the  rationalistic  school. 

§  56.  Duty  of  the  interpreter  in  reference  to  the  context. 
The  interpreter  should  first  of  all  determine  the  limits 
of  the  context.  He  should  endeavor  to  comprehend  the 
full  sense  and  the  general  bond  of  union  of  the  passage, 
seeking  not  the  brilliant  and  ingenious  interpretation,  but 
the  correct  sense  and  the  natural  connection. 

§  57,  58.    Kesources  derived  from  Parallel  Texts. 

§  57.    Distinctions. 

The  comparison  of  parallels  has  a  two-fold  object,  a)  to 
explain  an  obscure  or  unknown  word,  b)  to  determine  the 
correct  interpretation  of  a  vague  or  contested  idea.  In  the 
first  case  a  parallel  of  words  is  obtained,  but  in  the  second 
a  parallel  of  ideas.  These  are  distinct  resources  which 
differ  in  object,  method,  and  rules.  The  parallels  of  words 
pertain  to  Grammatical  Ilermeneutics,  the  parallels  of 
ideas  belong  to  Scriptural  Ilermeneutics. 

In  reference  to  the  parallels  of  words  there  is  still  an- 
other distinction  as  to  the  nature  and  method  which  gives 
rise  to  a  special  division  of  some  importance. 

1)  The  parallels  of  words,  properly  so  called,  consists  of 
different  passages  wherein  the  same  word  occurs. 

2)  There  are.  also,  certain  parallels  of  words  which  are 
really  parallels  of  phrases. 

§  58.    Parallels  of  words. 

1)  Properly  so  called.  The  different  passages  in  which  the 
obscure  word  occurs  are  compared,  giving  prominence  to 
the  most  important,  and  valuing  highly  those  which  are 
most  related  to  the  special  object  in  hand.  From  this  dis- 
criminating comparison  the  unknown  sense  is  derived. 


136  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

2)  Parallels,  improperly  so  called,  or  parallels  of  phrases, 
e.  g.,  stibadas  (l!A'dT]s.  11:  8)  explained  by  kladous  of  Matt. 
21:  8. 

§  59 — 61.    Resources  foreign  to  the  Text. 

§  59.    General  suggestions. 

The  philological  resources  may  be  classified  in  two  prin- 
cipal categories: 

1)  Those  which  are  occupied  with  the  languages  of  the 
Sacred  Books,  such  as  the  grammars  and  lexicons,  A  con- 
stant reference  to  these  instruments  is  necessary  in  every 
profound  study  of  the  Bible. 
•  2)  Those  which  are  occupied  not  with  the  languages  in 
general,  but  with  the  special  sense  of  a  given  word  or 
phrase. 

The  possession  of  a  well-selected  library  is  a  duty  which 
the  theologian  dare  not  neglect.  ^fsTever  were  force  of 
thought  and  independent  meditation  so  much  needed  as  at 
the  present  day.  Communion  with  the  master  minds  on 
biblical  subjects  is  a  great  incentive  to  individual  thought 
and  study. 

§  60.    A  choice  to  be  made. 

The  evident  necessity  of  a  careful  selection  of  books  ren- 
ders necessary  certain  suggestions  of  practical  value. 

1)  It  is  proper  to  consult  the  opposite  tendencies,  and  the 
different  schools.  It  is  of  advantage  to  compare  the 
literal  and  the  free  versions;  the  philosophical,  the  philo- 
logical, and  the  theological  commentaries. 

2)  In  each  of  these  tendencies  it  is  necessary  to  study  the 
works  of  the  greatest  ability  and  insight.  There  is  not 
time  to  peruse  all,  and  when  one  is  penetrating  an  unknown 
country,  he  has  need  of  sure  guides. 

3)  The  interpreter  should  prefer,  other  things  being  equal, 
the  special  treatises,  and  above  all,  monographs. 

4)  Finally,  the  student  should  limit  himself  to  a  small 
number  of  books,  at  least  in  the  beginning.  He  who  grasps 
too  much  in  his  arms  binds  the  bundle  but  poorly.  The 
library  of  students  ought  to  resemljle  the  house  of  Socrates 
— small,  but  full  of  true  friends. 

§  61.    Use  to  be  made. 

In  order  to  make  good  use  of  the  books  in  his  library, 
the  interpreter  should  first  of  all  know  them  well,  and  then 
employ  them  wisely. 

1)  A  student  can  not  know  the  merit  of  a  book  until 
he  has  carefully  studied  it.  An  examination  of  the  most 
important  portions  of  a  work  will  be  sufiicient  to  reveal 
the  character  of  the  whole.  The  method  and  the  princi- 
ples of  a  commentary  may  be  ascertained  by  the  study  of 
its  treatment  of  certain  obscure  and  contested  passages. 

2)  The  wise  employment  of  the  hermeneutical  instruments 
in  one's  possession  is  the  next  step,  and  seems  to  demand 
the  union  of  three  elements: 

a)  Utilize  the  special  advantages  of  each  instrument,  but 
be  not  tainted  by  its  faults. 


BIBLICAL  HERMENEUTICS.  137 

b)  The  interpreter  should  use  them  so  as  to  make  his  own 
thought  independent  and  his  investigation  critical,  rather 
than  to  obtain  in  detail  the  results  all  prepared. 

c)  The  student  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  object  in 
reading  is  to  stimulate  and  enlighten  his  own  intelligence, 
so  that  his  further  investigations  may  be  reliable.  His 
object  should  be  to  understand  the  Bible,  and  not  the  com- 
mentaries. The  passage  or  text  should  be  studied  first  in 
the  Bible,  and  then  in  the  commentary. 

Such  are  the  principal  topics  to  be  noticed  under  Gram- 
matical Hermeneutics. 

PART  THIRD.     HISTORICAL  HERMENEUTICS. 

§  62.    Introduction. 

The  task  in  this  third  part  consists  in  investigating  the 
nature  of  the  circumstances  which  modify  the  individuality 
of  the  sacred  authors. 

Four  different  orders  of  circumstances  are  to  be  studied: 

1)  Circumstances  personal  to  the  author, 

2)  Social  circumstances  of  the  author. 

3)  Philological  habits  of  the  author, 

4)  Circumstances  peculiar  to  the  writings. 
63—65.    Personal  circumstances  of  the  author. 
§  63,    Education  and  profession. 

The  circumstances  which  surround  the  child  are  always 
of  much  importance  in  his  gradual  development,  and  are 
recognizable  in  the  character  of  the  man.  Augustine  and 
Schleiermacher  can  not  be  adequately  understood  without 
taking  into  account  the  pious  mother  of  the  former  and 
the  Moravian  education  of  the  latter.  The  influence  of  the 
same  causes  is  discernible  in  the  inspired  authors.  No  in- 
terpreter worthy  of  the  name  can  fail  to  remark  the  rustic 
images  of  the  shepherd  Amos  or  the  sacerdotal  coloring 
of  the  last  chapters  of  Ezekiel.  David,— successively 
shepherd,  warrior,  and  king, — has  sown  his  Psalms  with 
images  borrowed  from  nature  and  the  battle-field. 
§  64.    Degree  of  instruction  and  of  natural  intelligence. 

ISTotwithstanding  the  infallibility  of  wisdom  assured  by 
the  Holy  Spirit  to  the  sacred  authors,  their  natural  traits 
display  themselves  in  their  writings.  Moses,  "learned  in 
all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,"  was  a  chosen  instrument 
to  give  to  the  Hebrews  the  legislation  which  should  govern 
them.  Among  ]N'ew  Testament  Avriters,  Luke,  "the  beloved 
physician,"  gives  evidence  of  his  literary  training,  giving 
us  the  purest  classical  Greek  in  the  ISTew  Testament  (Gos- 
pel, Acts,  and  Hebrews  (?),  in  the  latter  case,  acting  as 
the  amanuensis  of  St.  Paul). 

The  interpreter  must  be  able  to  avail  himself  of  these 
peculiarities  in  the  natural  thought  of  the  sacred  authors. 
§  65.    Moral  Character. 

The  heart  as  well  as  the  mind  of  man  is  reflected  in  his 
writings. 

No  attentive  reader  of  Isaiah  and  of  John  can  arise  from 
the  perusal  of  their  writings  without  a  definite  idea  of  their 


138  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

emotional  character.  The  key  to  the  book  of  Deuteronomy 
is  found  in  the  patriotic  ardor  of  Moses,  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  his  mission,  and  in  his  constant  solicitude  as  to  its 
issue.  No  one  can  fail  to  discover  the  moral  character  of 
David  in  his  Psalms.  For  the  interpretation  of  the  Epistles 
of  St.  Paul,  the  understanding  of  the  moral  character  of 
the  author  is  an  important  means. 

§  66 — 71.    Social  circumstances  of  the  author. 

§  66.    Geographical  circumstances. 

The  geography  of  a  country  often  exerts  an  indirect  in- 
fluence upon  language.  A  knowledge  of  the  geography  of 
Palestine  is  particularly  necessary  in  the  interpretation  of 
the  Old  Testament.  Allusions  to  Lebanon,  to  Carmel,  to 
the  countries  of  Gilead  and  Bashan,  and  to  the  neighboring 
peoples  and  enemies  of  the  Hebrews,  are  constantly  met 
with. 

§  67.    Natural  and  ordinary  circumstances. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  country,  its  usages  and  customs 
exert  a  great  influence  upon  the  sacred  writings.  And  in 
proportion  as  the  writers  are  from  a  rural  condition  and  of  • 
simple  habits  will  this  influence  be  marked.  The  inter- 
preter, in  order  to  appreciate  the  beauty  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment poetry,  must  employ  this  key  to  its  treasures. 

§  68.    Political  Position. 

A  knowledge  of  the  political  circumstances  of  Palestine, 
at  the  time  the  New  Testament  was  written,  is  of  great 
importance  to  the  correct  understanding  of  it. 

§  69.    Religious  circumstances. 

Nothing  exerts  such  an  influence  on  the  language  of  a 
people  as  its  national  belief.  The  Bible  abounds  in  allu- 
sions to  the  idolatrous  ceremonials,  religious  aberrations, 
and  false  doctrines  contemporary  with  the  authors.  These 
acted  their  part  in  the  intellectual  and  moral  sphere  of  the 
Apostles'  times,  and  have  left  their  impress  upon  the  Bible 
language.  This  fact  imposes  serious  duties  upon  the  inter- 
preter. 

§  70.    Effects  produced  upon  the  writers,  and  traces  left  in  the 
sacred  writings,  by  these  social  circumstances. 

1)  The  social  circumstances  gave  rise  to  institutions, 
with  which  the  interpreter  ought  to  be  acquainted. 

2)  They  are  the  source  of  many  images,  allusions,  and 
figures  scattered  through  the  poetical,  oratorical,  and  even 
didactic  portions  of  the  divine  Word. 

3)  The  religious  circumstances  were  the  occasion  of  many 
direct  or  indirect  polemics  against  idolatrous  or  dangerous 
theories.  In  order  to  comprehend  that  which  was  clear  to 
the  first  readers  of  the  Bible,  we  must  know  what  they 
knew— the  errors  that  the  writers  had  in  view. 

4)  The  change  of  the  social  circumstances  often  alters 
the  signification  of  the  words  they  have  created.  (Compare 
the  present  use  of  the  words  presbyter,  deacon,  and  bishop, 
with  the  original  Greek  words). 


BIBLICAL   IIERMENEUTICS.  139 

§  71.    Means  to  be  employed  by  the  interpreter. 

There  are  three  means  of  accomplishing  this  task,  to 
which  we  desire  to  direct  attention : 

1)  The  study  of  Biblical  Archaeology .  The  necessity  of 
this  study  cannot  be  insisted  upon  too  strongly. 

2)  A  philosophical  method  and  critical  talent  are  also 
essential  in  order  to  make  use  of  this  study  with  discern- 
ment. 

3)  The  assiduous,  complete  and  continued  reading  of  the 
Bible  is  very  essential.  It  furnishes  to  the  interpreter  all 
the  facts  and  a  knowledge  of  all  the  details  favorable  or 
unfavorable  to  each  explanation. 

§  72—79.    Philological  habits  of  authors. 
§  72.    Generally  considered. 

The  philogical  circumstances,  so  far  as  they  pertain  to 
the  sacred  authors,  may  be  summed  up  in  two  general  facts: 

1)  Ancient  authors  generally  use  a  language  less  precise, 
and  possess  a  method  less  vigorous  than  modern  writers. 

2)  Their  language  moreover  abounds  in  figures. 

§  73—75.    Language  wanting  in  Precision. 

§  73.    A  Priori.    Authors  and  language. 

We  must  not  forget  that  the  sacred  writers  were: 

1)  Orientals.  From  this  results  almost  necessarily  that 
their  language  is  highly  colored  rather  than  exact,  more 
fervent  than  rigorous  and  formulated. 

2)  Jews,  who  were  not  a  speculative  people,  addicted  to 
philosophical  research; 

3)  Uneducated  men,  as  a  general  rule.  This  fact  should 
cause  us  to  expect  a  language  more  vivid  and  animated 
than  exact  and  methodical. 

§  74.    Style  of  the  Bible. 

1)  We  find  no  trace  of  labored  style,  no  effort  in  the  di- 
rection of  artistic  writing. 

2)  The  Scriptures  'appear  to  be  designed  generally  to  ope- 
rate upon  the  imagination  and  the  heart  rather  than  upon 
the  intellect. 

3)  The  abstract  and  dogmatic  ideas  are  often  expressed 
in  the  Bible  by  figures. 

4)  The  grand  object  of  divine  truth  is  not  to  lodge  sy- 
stems in  the  mind,  but  to  enkindle  affections  in  the  heart. 

§  75.    Kules  arising  from  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  style. 

1)  The  interpreter  ought  to  proportionate,  so  to  speak,  the 
rigor  of  his  interpretation  to  the  more  or  less  positive  and 
didactic  character  of  the  book  and  passage  before  him. 

2)  The  interpreter  should  seek  as  much  aid  as  possible 
from  the  context. 

3)  He  should  study  the  Bible,  not  only  with  logic  and 
erudition,  but  also  and  especially,  with  religious  sensibility. 

§  76—79.    Figurative  Language. 

§  76.    Facts.  .     ^  ^.  ,  ^ 

The  language  of  the  Bible  is,  in  many  instances,  highly 
figurative.    This  is  no  concession  to  those  who  deny  the 


140  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

inspiration  of  the  word  of  God,  since  a  figure  or  parable 
may  be  just  as  much  inspired  as  a  rigid  syllogism.     • 

§  77.    Consequences  to  Hermeneutics. 

The  interpretation  of  the  Bible  is  rendered  difficult  by 
its  figurative  language.  The  work  of  Hermeneutics  is  to 
bring  back  the  figurative  language  of  the  Bible  to  positive 
ideas.    There  are  two  questions  to  be  decided: 

1)  Whether  the  language  is  or  is  not  figurative; 

2)  And  if  it  is,  to  determine  its  true  sense. 

§  78.    The  investigation  of  the  figurative  language. 

This  cannot  be  successfully  accomplished  by  intellectual 
science  alone.  Judgment  and  good  faith,  critical  tact  and 
impartiality,  are  also  necessary.  It  is  necessary  to  examine, 
the  passage  in  all  its  details,  critically,  exegetically,  and 
faithfully.  The  figurative  sense  must  be  sustained  by  all 
these  processes  before  it  can  be  relied  upon  as  the  true 
interpretation. 

§  79.    Investigation  of  the  figurative  sense. 

1)  The  principle.  The  existence  of  figurative  language 
in  a  given  passage  once  determined,  the  task  of  the  interp- 
reter consists  in  unveiling  the  idea  which  is  often  obscured 
by  the  figure. 

2)  The  facts.  A  careful  examination  of  the  biblical  lang- 
uage, figures,  and  facts,  will  ordinarily  be  sufficient  to 
prevent  misconceptions. 

3)  Rules  and  applications.  Too  much  stress  ought  not 
to  be  placed  upon  the  details  of  a  figure,  or  of  a  parable. 

4)  Practical  counsels. 

a)  The  context  is  as  useful  in  discovering  the  figurative, 
as  the  didactic  sense. 

b)  Nothing  will  better  conduce  to  the  formation  of 
good  sense  and  critical  tact  in  the  interpreter  than  the 
habitual  reading  of  the  Bible.  This  will  qualify  him  for 
appreciating  the  figures  which  he  so  frequently  meets  in  it. 

§  80—93.    Circumstances  peculiar  to  the  writings. 

§  80—86.    Internal  circumstances. 

§  80.    Influence  of  the  diversity  of  kinds  of  writing. 

The  nature  of  a  writing  will  necessarily  exert  an  influ- 
ence   upon    its    interpretation.    The   historical,    didactic, 
oratorical  and  poetical  kinds  of  writings  will  be  succes- 
sively considered. 
§  81.    The  Historical  writings. 

The  Bible  historians  in  most  cases  recount  the  facts  simp- 
ly, clearly,  and  without  pretension.  Hence  the  attention 
of  the  interpreter  should  be  centered  upon  the  facts  related, 
and  he  should  reproduce  them  as  far  as  possible  as  the 
historian  conceived  them  and  desired  them  to  be  trans- 
mitted. This  rule  has  been  frequently  disregarded  with 
respect  to  the  narratives  of  miracles.  And  many  ortho- 
dox critics,  with  an  apologetic  intention,  have  often  made 
too  great  a  concession  to  rationalism. 


BIBLICAL  IIERMENEUTICS.  141 

82.  Chronology. 

The  subject  of  historical  chronology  is  a  very  difficult 
one.  If  one  is  determined  to  find  a  regular  chronology  in 
the  Old  Testament,  he  is  doomed  to  disappointment.  The 
same  difficulties  arise  in  the  New  Testament,  though  not 
in  the  same  degree.  It  is  very  difficult  to  arrange  all  the 
details  of  the  four  Gospels  into  a  regular  harmony. 

In  all  difficult  cases  we  must  be  satisfied  with  an  approx- 
imate chronology. 

83.  Influence  of  the  individuality  of  the  Historians. 

We  must  become  convinced  of  each  writer's  modes  of  ex- 
pression and  style  before  we  can  successfully  interpret  his 
works.  A  knowlege  of  his  intellectual  and  moral  charac- 
teristics is  required.  In  reference  to  the  Old  Testament, 
this  investigation  will  be  found  peculiarly  beneficial. 

84.  The  Didactic  Writings. 

In  the  didactic  writings  the  revealed  truths  are  princi- 
pally to  be  found.  In  the  interpretation  of  these  the  ut- 
most caution  and  reserve  are  to  be  observed.  The  theolo- 
gian is  required  to  distinguish  between  the  instruction 
and  the  arguments  by  which  it  is  supported.  Both  are 
divinely  inspired,  but  special  attention  must  be  paid  to 
the  former.  The  arguments  are  only  a  divine  condes- 
cension to  persuade  men. 

Again,  in  the  Scriptures,  the  instruction  is  scarcely  ever 
given  in  a  form  purely  and  clearly  didactic.  In  order,  there- 
fore, to  succeed  in  understanding  the  didactic  portions  of 
the  ]N'ew  Testament,  the  theologian  has  need  of  great 
sagacity,  clearness  of  mind,  justness  of  judgment,  and  deep 
spiritual  insight. 

85.  Oratorical  Writings. 

In  oratorical  writings  are  found  objects  much  more 
complex,  more  flowing  styles,  the  employment  of  more 
numerous  figures,  and  more  personal  arguments.  The  task 
of  the  interpreter  is  necessarily  modified  by  these  circum- 
stances. A  large  portion  of  the  biblical  writings  assumes 
this  oratorical  form.  It  is  found  in  the  legislative  deliver- 
ances of  Moses  and  in  the  chants  of  the  prophets.  The 
later  part  of  Isaiah  contains  it,  and  it  is  found  mingled  with 
the  poetical  instructions  in  the  book  of  Job.  The  inter- 
preter's task  consists  in  extricating  the  precise  and  exact 
thought  from  these  oratorical  passages. 

86.  Poetical  Writings. 

The  poetry  of  the  Bible  has  a  two-fold  character: 

1)  Sometimes  it  is  used  in  prophetical  writings  with  the 
evident  design  of  enveloping  the  details  of  a  prophecy  in 
a  brilliant  but  thick  veil,  which  can  easily  be  removed 
when  the  fulfillment  has  arrived.  Examples  may  be  found 
in  Isaiah,  in  Joel,  and  in  the  discourses  of  Christ,  with 
reference  to  his  future  coming, 

2)  Sometimes  the  poetry  is  merely  symbolical  and  didac- 
tic, and  is  thus  designed  to  give  pungency  and  life  to  the 
truth  imparted.  Examples  of  the  didactic  use  of  poetry 
may  be  found  especially  in  the  Psalms. 


142  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

§  87—93.    External  circumstances  of  the  writings. 
§  87.    Persons  to  whom  the  writings  were  addressed.    In- 
fluence upon  the  writing. 

An  author,  addressing  himself  to  a  person  of  peculiar 
character,  chooses  his  Avords  with  reference  to  the  effect 
produced  upon  him.  The  consideration  of  the  persons 
addressed  is  therefore  an  important  resource.  These  circum- 
stances may  be  external  to  the  persons  addressed,  as  for 
example, geographical,  natural,  and  political  circumstances; 
prosperity,  wealth,  industry,  renown,  origin  of  churches, 
and  number  of  believers,  or  may  relate  more  particularly 
to  the  inner  life,  such  as  the  religious  circumstanses,  deep- 
rooted  prejudices,  intellectual  and  moral  characteristics. 
The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  strongly  impressed  by  exter- 
nal influences,  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  and  to  the  Colos- 
sians  by  internal  influences,  and  the  Epistles  to  the  Corin- 
thians by  both. 

§  88.    Circumstances  of  the  epoch. 

It  is  universally  conceded  that  the  events  and  circum- 
stances of  the  epoch  in  which  a  writing  is  produced  modify 
its  character. 

§  89.    Occasion  of  the  writing. 

The  occasion  of  the  writing  may  almost  always  be  found, 
and  from  it  great  profit  may  be  derived.  This  helps  us 
greatly  in  obtaining  a  proper  understanding  of  2  Thessa- 
lonians,  Galatians,  and  2  Corinthians. 

§  90.    Object  of  the  writing. 

The  object  of  the  writing  is  the  eifect  that  the  writer 
wishes  to  produce.  Each  separate  book  of  the  Bible  has  its 
distinct  object. 

§  91.    Importance  of  the  examination  of  the  object. 

The  mind  of  the  writer  is  constantly  fixed  upon  the 
object  he  has  in  view,  and  therefore,  the  attention  of  the 
interpreter  should  be  directed  to  the  same.  This  object 
once  discovered  will  complete  the  abridged  phrases,  throw 
light  upon  obscurities,  and  detect  the  true  meaning  when 
several  interpretations  are  possible. 

§  92.    Abuse  of  the  consideration  of  the  object. 

Some  have  abused  the  general  object  by  forgetting  the 
special  object,  supposing  that  the  entire  book  from  the 
first  to  the  last  word  should  revolve  around  a  single  idea. 
This  rigorous  unity  is  seldom  found  in  the  biblical  writ- 
ings. Whatever  may  be  the  importance  of  the  general 
object  of  the  book,  the  special  object  of  each  section  takes 
precedence  in  Hermeneutics. 

§  93.    Means  of  determining  the  object. 

The  investigation  of  the  object  is  a  critical  work,  in 
which  sagacity  and  good  sense  are  of  more  avail  than  any 
logical  process.  A  few  practical  rules  are  therefore  given: 
1)  The  traditions  of  ecclesiastical  history  upon  the  object 
of  the  New  Testament  writings  should  not  be  entirely 
ignored. 


BIBLICAL   IIERMENEUTICS.  143 

2)  Sometimes  an  author  himself  indicates  his  object,  as 
Luke  in  his  prologue,  John  in  the  conclusion  of  his  (lospel 
(John  20:  31),  and  Moses  in  the  course  of  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy. 

3)  The  study  of  the  persons,  the  epoch,  and  the  occasion 
will  be  found  very  useful  in  the  determination  of  the 
object. 

4;  These  suggestions  are  useful  in  solving  the  question 
of  the  external  objects.  The  internal  objects  can  only  be 
revealed  by  the  attentive  reading  of  the  book,  and  the  com- 
parative reading  of  the  Bible  combined  with  meditation 
upon  the  successive  details. 

PART  FOURTH.     SCRIPTURAL  HERMENEUTICS. 

§  94.    Generally  considered. 

Scriptural  Hermeneutics  is  the  complement  of  Historical 
Hermeneutics.  The  resources  that  Scriptural  Hermeneutics 
furnishes  to  the  interpreter  may  be  embraced  under  five 
different  heads: 

1)  The  Context,  which  has  for  its  nature  the  logical  and 
psychological  character  of  the  instruction. 

2)  llie  Analogy  of  Faith,  w^hich  has  for  its  principle 
the  general  unity  of  biblical  instruction. 

3)  The  Parallels  of  Ideas,  which  have  for  their  prin- 
ciple the  constant  identity  of  instruction. 

4)  The  Special  Study  of  each  sacred  book,  which  has 
for  its  principle  the  individuality  of  each  author. 

5)  The  Moral  and  Intellectual  Character  of  the  Bible, 
which  has  for  its  principle  the  sanctity  and  wisdom  of  the 
instruction. 

§  95—102.    Analogy  of  Faith. 
§  95.    Its  nature  and  principle. 

The  method  of  interpretation  called  Analogy  of  Faith, 
appeals  to  the  general  character  of  scriptural  truth  for  the 
explanation  of  a  special  passage.  This  method  rests  upon 
the  principle  of  the  inspired  unity  of  the  revelation  depos- 
ited in  the  sacred  books.  This  unity  is  at  once  the  result 
and  a  strong  proof  of  the  inspiration  of  Bible.  The  Ana- 
logy of  Faith  is  therefore  an  inspired  means  of  inter- 
pretation. 

§  96—98.    Conditions. 
§  96.    Superior  degrees  of  Analogy  of  Faith. 

In  the  Analogy  of  Faith  there  are,  according  as  it  is  de- 
duced more  or  less  immediatly  from  the  sacred  books, 
many  different  degrees  as  to  force  and  value.  It  is  pos- 
sible to  distinguish  four  of  these  degrees,  two  of  which  are 
superior  and  worthy  of  confidence,  and  two  of  which  are 
inferior.  The  former  may  be  called  Positive  Analogy  and 
General  Analogy,  and  the  latter,  Deduced  Analogy  and 
Imposed  Analogy. 

a)  Positive  Analogy.  Thus  we  designate  the  analogy 
which  is  positively  and  immediatly  founded  upon  scrip- 
tural teachings.    This   superior  degree  is  attainable  only 


144  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

by  the  collection  of  a  large  number  of  positive  and  imani- 
moiis  passages,  and  is  placed  above  all  controversy. 

6)  General  Analogy.  This  is  the  analogy  which  is  de- 
duced, not  as  the  preceding  degree,  from  the  very  letter 
of  many  unanimous  passages,  but  from  their  object,  their 
tendency,  and  the  religious  impression  that  they  leave 
upon  mankind.  General  Analogy,  when  it  is  supported 
upon  the  positive  and  constant  tendencies  of  Scripture, 
has  a  real  value  as  a  hermeneutical  instrument,  never- 
theless the  evidence  derived  is  inferior  to  that  of  Positive 
Analogy,  because  an  element  of  reasoning  must  enter, 
and  therefore  error  may  creep  in. 

§  97.    Inferior  degrees  of  Analogy  of  Faith. 

The  Deduced  and  Imposed  Analogies  are  not  without 
value,  but  they  are  much  less  influential  than  Positive 
and  Greneral  Analogy. 

a)  Deduced  Analogy.  This  method,  having  deduced,  by 
a  train  of  reasoning,  the  logical  consequences  of  the  uni- 
versal and  positive  teaching  of  Scripture,  demands  for 
these  consequences  the  same  degree  of  authority  as  for 
the  biblical  instruction  itself.  But  this  takes  for  granted 
the  infallibility  of  the  reasonings  which  connect  the  conse- 
quences with  their  sources.  These  reasonings  may  be  just 
or  false,  but  are  always  human,  and,  as  such,  at  least 
debatable.  They  are  theological  systems,  but  by  no  means 
the  Analogy  of  Faith. 

6)  Imposed  Analogy.  This  method  has  simply  the  value 
of  a  probability.  It  is  probable  that  the  antiquity,  continuity 
and  universality  of  an  interpretation  are  sufficient  gua- 
rantees of  its  justness.  This  method  has  a  certain  value, 
but  it  differs  from  the  Analogy  of  Faith. 

§  98.    I^^umber,  unanimity,  clearness,  distribution. 

The  Analogy  of  Faith,  although  immediate  and  scrip- 
tural, will  not  always  have  the  same  degree  of  evidence 
and  the  same  authority.  This  evidence  and  this  authority 
vary  according  to  the  number,  unanimity,  clearness,  and 
distribution  of  the  passages  upon  which  they  are  founded. 
We  will  illustrate  this  in  the  case  of  number.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  a  divine  certainty  is  attached  to  every  positive 
and  precise  declaration  of  Scripture,  but  something  more 
is  necessary  to  form  the  Analogy  of  Faith.  A  frequent 
and  even  constant  repetition  is  necessary.  It  is  evident 
that  the  Analogy  of  Faith  is  stronger  for  the  existence  of 
God  than  for  the  personality  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  This  is, 
however,  no  siifficient  reason  for  doubting  the  latter  truth, 
but  the  Analogy  which  supports  it  is  not  so  strong. 

§  99—102.    Keal  utility  of  the  Analogy  of  Faith. 
§  99.    General  utility. 

In  the  superior  degrees  it  renders  two  general  services, 
which  could  not  be  expected  from  any  other  resource. 

1)  It  proves  the  true  interpretation  of  a  passage,  in  a 
manner  peculiarly  satisfactory  to  the  mind,  by  using  the 
whole  Bible  as  a  commentary. 


BIBLICAL  HERMENEUTICS.  145 

2)  Analogy  of  Faith,  moreover,  enables  the  student  to 
arrange  the  teachings  of  Scripture  as  to  their  relative  im- 
portance While  all  the  deliverances  of  the  Bible  are  equallv 
inspired  there  seems  to  be  a  difference  in  the  mind  of  the 
^'^pirit  as  to  their  relative  value  to  the  wants  of  man 
§  100.    Special  Utility. 

There  are  among  others,  two  particular  advantages 
gamed  by  the  Analogy  of  Paith. 

1)  The  mistakes  which  spring  from  biblical  anthropo- 
morphisms and  expressions  which  are  foreign  to  our 
present  customs,  are  thus  removed. 

2)  The^  Analogy  of  Faith  enables  us  to  subordinate  cer- 
tain historical  tacts,  certain  mysterious  dispensations  of 
providence,  to  the  incontestable  purity  of  the  Divine 
attributes. 

§  101.    Hermeneutical  Consequences. 

1)  A  doctrine  clearly  supported  by  the  Analogy  of  Faith 
can  not  be  contradicted  by  a  contrary  and  obscure  passage 
ihe  seeming  disagreement  between  the  two  can  be  recon- 
ciled only  by  careful  study;  but  the  preference  must  al- 
ways be  given  to  the  truth  supported  by  the  Analogy  of 
Faith.  See  1  John.  3:  6.  The  literal  sense  here  is  contra- 
dicted by  the  Analogy  of  Faith,  as  also  by  a  passage  in 
the  same  epistle  (1  John  1:  8-10;  2:  1).  ^ 

.  ^)^^  isolated  passage  if  it  is  neither  supported  nor  con- 
tradicted by  the  Analogy  of  Faith  can,  according  to  the 
circumstances  of  clearness,  precision,  and  the  context,  be 
understood  as  positively  teaching  a  doctrine 

3)  When  a  doctrine  is  supported  only  by  an  isolated  pas- 
sage and  meets  with  no  countenance  from  the  Analogy  of 
Faith,  It  ought  to  be  suspected,  and  very  probably  the 
passage  should  be  otherwise  interpreted.  Thus  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  has  no  right  to  found  upon  James  5- 

7  7.,^^.^®^^  sacraments,    absolutely  foreign    to  the 
rest  of  the  New  Testament. 
§  102.    Doctrinal  Consequences. 

The  Analogy  of  Faith  sometimes  supports  doctrines 
which  are  seemingly  contradictory.  What  shall  an  interp- 
reter do  in  such  a  case?  From  the  principles  that  have 
been  laid  down,  the  two  following  conclusions  may  be 

1)  The  interpreter  should  recognise  the  existence  of  two 
^f  F^^-th    ^^^^^^^^  supported  by  exegesis  and  the  Analogy 

2)  It  is  proper  to  admit  that  there  is  but  a  seeming  con- 
tradiction, and  the  solution  must  be  sought  in  exegesis  in 
the  general  spirit  of  Scriptural  teaching,  and  in  the  study 
of  the  human  heart.  This  solution  may  almost  always  be 
found  with  time,  labor,  and  good  faith.  But  if  it  is  not 
found  It  is  our  duty  to  wait,  meditate,  and  labor  still 

103—111.    Parallels  of  Ideas. 

There  is  noticeable  in  the  Bible  a  progress  of  Revelation 
from  the  earlier  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  to  the  fullv 
developed  writings  of  the  apostles.    But  in  spite  of  this 


146  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCL0P^:DIA. 

progress,  there  is  a  fundamental  unity  in  the  teaching  of 
the  Bible,  which  is  thus  proved  divine. 

The  parallels  of  ideas  pertain  strictly  to  the  fundamental 
truths,  which  are  woven  into  the  whole  texture  of  Keve- 
lation.  The  value  of  this  method  of  interpretation,  there- 
fore, is  ma  le  up  of  two  facts:  a)  the  universal  occurrence 
of  certain  great  truths  in  Scripture,  and  6)  the  greater  and 
clearer  development  of  these  truths  in  some  portions  of  the 
Bible  than  in  others. 

The  task  to  be  attempted  in  this  connection  is  threefold: 

1)  To  classify  and  graduate  the  several  categories  of 
parallels. 

2)  To  appreciate  the  real  utility  to  be  derived  therefrom. 

3)  To  indicate  the  rules  to  be  employed  and  the  precau- 
tions to  be  taken  in  studying  parallels  of  ideas. 

A.  Classification  and  graduation  of  the  parallels  of  ideas. 

§  103.    Necessity  and  principle  of  this  classification. 

It  is  probable  that  two  biblical  passages,  possessing  a 
certain  analogy  as  to  form,  language,  and  matter,  express 
the  same  idea;  it  is  right  consequently  to  deduce  from  the 
clearer  passage  the  sense  of  the  more  obscure.  This  is  the 
essence  of  parallels  of  Ideas.  This  probability  must  vary 
evidently,  a)  according  to  the  number  and  nature  of  the 
passages,  and  6)  according  to  their  distribution  through- 
out the  Bible. 

§  104.    Attempt  at  graduation. 

1.  The  lowest  degree  of  parallels  will  be  composed  of 
the  passages  taken  at  random  from  the  Bible,  without 
reference  to  the  kinds  of  writings,  their  epochs,  or  authors. 

2.  A  somewhat  superior  degree  will  be  composed  of  the 
parallel  texts  which  have  been  taken  from  the  Old  1'esta- 
ment  alone;  but  still  with  no  reference  to  the  writings, 
epochs,  and  authors. 

3.  A  superior  category  will  include  contemporaneous 
writers,  similarily  situated. 

4.  Still  higher  are  the  parallels  taken  from  the  dilferent 
writings  of  the  same  author. 

5.  The  higest  degree  of  probability  may  be  attached  to 
parallels  taken  from  the  same  writings. 

B.  Appreciation  of  the  utility  of  parallels. 

§  105.  Considered  generally.  The  comparision  of  parallel 
passages  is  singularly  attractive  to  the  interpreter.  To 
avoid  the  great  danger  of  mistake  in  the  usage  of  parallels, 
the  interpreter  must  carefully  examine  each  parallel  with 
the  aid  of  the  several  contexts. 

§  106,    Particular  cases  of  utilily. 

1.  Obscure  passages  may  be  explained. 

2.  Historical  facts  are  frequently  confirmed  and  com- 
pleted, e.  g.,  the  three  distinct  accounts  of  the  conversion 
of  St.  Paul  (Acts  9,  22,  and  26). 

3.  The  teachings  of  the  Bible  are  completed  and  de- 
veloped. 

4.  Parallels  of  ideas,  moreover,  enable  us  to  estimate 
the  certainty  of  the  teachings  of  the  Bible. 


BIBLICAL   nERMENEUTICS.  147 

C.    Rules  and  cautions, 

§  107,  108.    In  the  choice  ol"  parallels. 
§  107,    Avoid  the  parallels  of  words. 

The  parallels  of  words  posess  a  certain  utility,  and  even 
a  great  philological  value.    But  their  object,  method,  and 
use,  differ  entirely  from  those  of  the  parallels  of  ideas. 
§  108.    Avoid  seeming  but  false  parallels. 

The  true  interpreter  should  not  be  contented  with  slight 
appearance  nor  with  vague  relations.  He  should  conscien- 
tiously assure  himself  of  the  separate  sense  of  each,  study- 
ing them  analytically,  carefully,  and  with  reference  to 
the  context. 

§  109—111.    In  the  use  of  parallels. 
§  109.    Logical  use. 

The  more  obscure  passage  should  be  explained  by  the 
more  perspicuous.  Although  this  principle  seems  self-evid- 
ent, it  has   often  been  forgotten  and  even  systematically 
opposed, 
§  110.    True  nature  of  doctrinal  clearness. 

There  are  some  necessary  obscurities  in  religion,  per- 
taining to  the  unknown  and  mysterious  nature  of  revealed 
truth. 

There  are,  however,  certain  obscurities,  which  arise 
from  the  incomplete,  confused,  complex,  and  figurative 
character  of  the  biblical  language,  and  these  may  in 
a  measure  be  explained.  This  explanation  should  be  derived 
from  other  analogous  passages  which  possess  the  desirable 
clearness  by  reason  of  the  positive,  exact,  and  uniform 
language  in  which  they  are  couched, 
§  111.    Careful  and  judicious  use. 

Special  care  must  be  taken  not  to  be  misled  by  the  refer- 
ences found  in  our  Bibles.    They  must  all  be  verified  criti- 
cally and  judiciously  before  they  may  form  the  basis  of 
any  interpretation. 
§  112,  113.    Special  study  of  each  of  the  Sacred  Books. 
§  112.    Principle  of  this  study. 

The  individuality  of  the  authors  is  the  principle  upon 
which  this  study  is  based.  It  is  very  easy  to  discover  that 
the  sacred  writers  have  preserved  their  human  character- 
istics to  a  certain  degree,  and  these  of  necessity  exert  an 
influence  a)  upon  the  language,  6)  the  method,  and  c)  the 
doctrine  of  the  Bible. 
§  113.    The  subject  developed. 

1.  Method  of  each  sacred  author.  An  author's  mode  of 
reasoning  and  poetry,  the  outbreaks  of  his  piety  and  the 
transports  of  his  imagination,  the  nature  of  his  deductions 
and  polemics,  are  all  influenced  by  his  individuality.  In 
the  study  of  the  Old  Testament  prophets,  for  example,  the 
interpreter  who  knows  how  to  analyze  their  diversities  and 
resemblances  can  derive  much  light  from  the  comparison. 
The  same  is  true  in  regard  to  the  New  Testament  authors. 

2.  Instruction  and  doctrine.    The  individuality  of  the 


148  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

sacred  author  exerts  an  influence  also  upon  the  doctrines 
he  expounds.  The  grand  theme  of  Paul  is  faith,  Peter 
dwells  largely  upon  the  grace  of  hope,  while  John,  the 
loving  and  loved  disciple,  is  the  Apostle  of  love.  This  in- 
fluence of  individuality  upon  the  doctrine  is  clearer  and 
more  positive  in  the  New  Testament  than  in  the  Old. 

§  114—123.    Moral  and  Intellectual  character  of  the  Bible. 
§  114.    Introduction. 

A  revelation  from  God  must  participate  of  His  wisdom 
and  holiness.  The  attempt  should  be  made  to  find  in  the 
Bible  the  moral  and  intellectual  character  which  it  displays. 

A.  Nature  of  the  principle. 

§  115.    Its  nature  explained. 

The  interpreter  ought  to  be  convinced  of  the  sanctity  and 
divinity  of  the  Bible,  and  he  dare  not  admit  any  inter- 
pretation contrary  to  this  character  of  sanctity  and 
inspiration. 

B.  Application  of  the  principle. 

§  116.    General  application. 

There  are  five  elements  in  this  intellectual  and  moral 
character  of  the  Bible,  and  these  form  five  phases  of  the 
divine  work. 

1.  The  grandeur  and  beauty  of  the  conceptions.  This 
statement  includes  two  distinct  and  important  points:  a) the 
interpreter  must  expect  things  worthy  of  God,  by  reason 
of  their  grandeur  and  beauty,  and  h)  things  superior  to  the 
conceptions  of  man. 

2.  Harmony.  We  ought  to  expect  the  harmony  of  the 
Bible  with  itself,  since,  in  spite  of  the  variety  of  forms,  all 
its  portions  proceed  from  the  same  source.  We  should 
expect,  moreover,  the  harmony  of  the  God  of  the  Bible 
with  the  God  of  nature.  This  harmony  is  one  of  the  most 
profound  and  undeniable  evidences  of  the  divine  character 
of  the  Bible. 

The  three  following  principles  result  from  the  harmony 
between  the  Bible  and  nature. 

3.  The  progress  of  man  toward  his  destination. 

Man  is  at  once  imperfect  and  perfectible,  mortal  and  im- 
mortal. Every  interpretation,  therefore,  that  would  con- 
fine man  to  the  present  and  attach  him  too  much  to  the 
earth,  ought  to  be  suspected  by  the  interpreter. 

4.  The  sanctity  of  morality. 

5.  The  happiness  of  man  by  obedience  to  God.  This  is 
the  result  of  divine  goodness  and  of  divine  wisdom. 

The  interpreter  ought  to  mistrust  every  interpretation 
which  would  contradict,  or  be  out  of  harmony  with,  these 
elements  in  the  moral  and  intellectual  character  of  the 
Bible.  He  should  be  willing  to  leave  without  solution,  the 
rare  and  but  slightly  important,  enigmas  present  here  and 
there  in  the  Bible. 
§  117.    Modified  application. 

The  accommodation  of  the  divine  instruction  to  the  in- 
firmities of  men  will  detract  somewhat  from  the  intel- 


BIBLICAL   HEIIMENEUTICS.  149 

lectual  character  of  the  Bible.  That  is  to  say,  we  will 
observe  that  the  whole  truth  was  not  delivered  to  the  Jews, 
that  certain  questionable  practices  were  permitted  in  the 
infancy  of  the  race.  Still  these  results  will  not  detract 
in  the  least  degree  from  the  inspiration  of  the  Bible. 
§  118.    Special  application  to  the  New  Testament. 

When  the  Saviour  makes  a  change  in  his  plans  previ- 
ously arranged,  the  interpreter  will  not  transform  this 
action  into  local  and  contracted  views,  or  into  an  evidence 
of  his  mere  humanity,  as  rationalists  have  done.  The  ap- 
parant  indilference  of  the  Master  to  the  pleadings  of  the 
Canaanitish  woman  will  not,  from  this  point  of  view,  be 
regarded  as  hardness  of  heart. 

In  the  writings  of  the  Apostles  individuality  and  occasion- 
ality  are  everywhere  visible. 
§  119.    Special  application  to  the  Old  Testament. 

The  student  ought  not  to  be  shocked  l)y  ))eholding  moral 
and  intellectual  imperfections  in  the  Old  Testament,  which 
are  not  the  result  of  any  lack  of  inspiration  on  the  part 
of  the  sacred  writers,  but  have  been  permitted  by  God  in 
order  that  his  AVord  may  be  placed  at  the  very  door  of 
those  whom  he  desires  to  enlighten  and  save. 
C,  Appreciation  of  the  principle. 
§  120.    Objections. 

The  principles  which  have  been  stated  are  exposed  to 
dangers,  and  may  become  disastrous  if  they  are  not  care- 
fully limited.    But  if  employed  judiciously  they  will  prove 
productive  of  great  good  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Bible. 
Three  objections  may  be  made: 

1.  That  this  principle  is  a  i)?•^or^,  and  the  interpreter  is 
no  longer  impartial. 

2.  That  this  principle  is  itself  doubtfully  and  danger- 
ously founded.  In  fact,  we  are  told,  this  principle  is  ratio- 
nalism pure  and  simple. 

3.  That  this  principle  has  the  extreme  inconvenience 
of  being  neither  uniform  nor  comparable.  Each  interpreter 
has  a  peculiar  idea  of  moral  and  intellectual  excellence. 

§  121.    Value  of  these  objections. 

First  objection  answered.  Impartiality  should  not  be 
confounded  with  indifference.  In  order  to  be  a  good  inter- 
preter, there  is  necessary,  at  least,  a  certain  degree  of  religi- 
ous conviction  and  faith.  In  other  words,  he  needs  a 
conviction  of  the  sanctity,  the  moral  and  intellectual  excel- 
lence of  the  Bible,  and  a"^  belief  in  the  divinity  of  Jesus 
Christ.  This  conviction  is  the  key  to  the  Bible;  and  with- 
out it  the  hidden  treasures  of  divine  truth  are  never  un- 
locked. 

Second  objection  answered.  There  is  danger  of  rational- 
ism to  one  who  adopts  this  principle;  but  there  is  no  less 
danger  in  neglecting  it.  You  must  not  desert  the  path  be- 
cause quicksands  are  upon  every  side. 

Third  objection  answered.  We  admit  there  is  an  incon- 
venience in  the  application  of  this  principle,  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  this  principle  must  be  used,  and  is  used  uniformly 


150  TIIEOLOGIOAL   EXCYCLOP^DIA. 

by  all  Christian  interpreters.  The  objection  is  not  true  that 
there  will  be  as  many  interpretations  as  consciences,  since 
all  Christian  minds  and  hearts  coincide  in  one  appreciation 
of  this  principle.  The  moral  and  intellectual  character  of 
the  Bible  is  recognized  in  the  same  way,  although  with  a 
difference  of  degree,  by  all.  Xo  Christian  writer  can  be 
found  who  would  seriously  pretend  that  Jesus  sanctioned  a 
course  of  deception  and  unbelief  in  Luke  16:  8. 
§  122.    Limits  of  the  principle. 

By  way  of  summation,  let  us  determine  the  limits  of  the 
principle,  and  seek  the  means  to  which  the  interpreter 
should  have  resource.  Three  will  be  mentioned  which 
have  already  been  indicated. 

1.  The  conviction  of  the  weakness  and  fallibility  of 
man.  The  interpreter  must  recognize  this  human  fallibi- 
lity, and  learn  to  mistrust  himself,  to  proceed  with  caution 
and  diligence,  and  to  esteem  himself  in  fault  before  charg- 
ing the  Bible  with  inaccuracy. 

2.  The  divine  authority  of  revelation  imposes  strong  re- 
strictions upon  the  exercises  of  the  human  reason  in  apply- 
ing this  principle. 

3.  The  Analogy  of  Faith,  which  is  the  purest  and  most 
certain  expression  of  the  authority  of  the  Bible.  Whenever 
the  interpreter  is  in  perplexity,  whenever  there  is  an  appar- 
ent want  of  harmony  between  his  reason  and  the  Bible,  the 
Analogy  of  Faith,  will  cause  the  right  decision  to  be  made. 

§  123.    Consequences  of  the  principle. 

Two  important  consequences  may  be  deduced  from  the 
preceeding  discussion, 

1.  The  moral  and  intellectual  character  of  the  Bible 
must  be  taken  account  of  by  every  reader  of  that  book, 
whether  he  is  conscious  of  it  or  not.  He  has  the  right  to 
study  the  Bible  with  the  aid  of  his  individual  conscience. 
Therefore  the  diversity  of  religious  views'  is  a  necessity  of 
the  very  nature  of  our' intelligence. 

2.  One  of  the  prominent  and  necessary  characteristics  of 
the  Bible  is  its  harmony  with  the  laws,  the  plans,  and  the 
benefits  of  the  God  of  nature.  The  moral  and  intellectual 
character  of  the  Bible  is  simply  a  corollary  of  this  harmony 
and  causes  its  importance,  beauty  and  reality  to  be  known. 


PART  FIFTH.   DOCTRINAL  HERMENEUTICS. 

§  124—127.     Introduction. 
§  124.    Exposition  of  the  subject. 

In  the  thought  of  the  human  authors  of  the  Bible  we 
must  endeavor,  if  posuble,  to  discover  the  thought  of  God. 
Here  the  question  of  inspiration  presents  itself,  and  three 
topics  naturally  arise,  a)  the  reality  of  inspiration,  6)  its 
extent,  and  c)  the  mode  of  inspiration.  The  proper  under- 
•  standing  of  the  first  two  is  essential  for  the  interpreter, 
but  the  consideration  of  the  third  element,  the  mode  of 
inspiration  belongs  more  properly  to  Dogmatics. 


BIBLICAL   IIETIMENEUTICS.  151 

§  125.    Critical  Question. 

The  true  way  of  stating  the  questions  pertaining  to  the 
authority  and  inspiration  of  the  Canon  is  this: 

1)  Were  the  authors  of  the  sacred  books  inspired  V 

2)  Is  each  of  these  books  actually  inspired? 

As  for  ourselves  we  believe  in  the  authenticity  and  inspi- 
ration of  all  the  books  which  the  Protestant  churches 
receive  as  canonical,  and  there  are  abundant  opportunities 
of  proving  the  authenticity  and  inspiration  of  each  book 
of  the  Canon,  but  this  is  not  the  place  for  the  evidence.  It 
can  be  found  in  special  works  on  the  Canon. 
§  126.    Different  methods  of  answering  the  question. 

Are  the  sacred  writings  really  inspired,  and  to  what 
extent  ? 

The  true  answer  is: 

The  sacred  writings  are  inspired,  and  their  inspiration  is 
plenary.  The  infallible  thought  of  the  infallible  God  is 
found  entire  in  the  infallible  words  of  our  sacred  books. 

Rationalists,  finding,  as  they  suppose,  errors  of  detail  in . 
the  sacred  writings,  aftirm  that  since  their  infallibility  is 
not  complete  they  are  not  inspired. 

Many  theologians  hold  an  intermediate  view,  equally 
untenable.  They  hold  that  the  Scriptures  contain  the  Word 
of  God,  but  that  they  are  not  all  equally  inspired. 
§  127.    The  true  method. 

That  the  sacred  writings  are  inspired,  and  that  their  in- 
spiration is  plenary  can  be  shown: 

1)  From  the  testimony  of  the  sacred  writers  as  to  their 
own  inspiration. 

2)  From  the  traces  of  inspiration  which  the  Bible 
presents. 

3)  From  the  effects  produced  by  the  books  which  we 
hold  to  be  inspired. 

§  128—136.    Proofs  of  Inspiration. 
§  128.    Definition  and  Exposition. 

We  must  distinguish  between  Revelation  and  Inspira- 
tion, for  they  differ  as  to  their  objects,  and  as  to  their 
effects.  The  object  of  Revelation  is  the  communication  of 
knowledge;  of  inspiration,  to  secure  infallibility  in  teach- 
ing. The  effect  of  Revelation  is  to  render  its  recipient 
wiser;  that  of  Inspiration  is  to  preserve  him  from  error 
in  teaching, 
A.    §  129—133.     Proofs. 

§  129.    Arguments  a  priori. 

A  revelation  once  admitted,  the  necessity  of  authority 
seems  to  us  to  result  from  its  very  nature. 

1)  When  we  speak  of  a  truth  communicated  by  God, 
the  notion  of  authority  is  inseparable  from  the  notion  of 
revelation.  Suppose  a  revelation  without  authority:  no 
more  value,  or  certainty,  can  be  attached  to  it  than  to  a 
philosophy,  and  it  would  become,  so  far  as  it  is  a  super- 
natural communication,  utterly  worthless. 

2)  The  acceptance  of  divine  revelation  on  the  part  of 
man  supposes  an  acknowledged  authority,  established  by 


152  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

evidence — an  authority  which  can  touch  the  heart  and 
conscience,  affect  the  imagination,  and  appeal  to  the  in- 
telligence of  mankind.  Without  such  an  authority,  revela- 
tion cannot  satisfy  the  three  great  wants  of  men : ' 

a)  To  give  man  a  firm  and  well  grounded  faith. 

6)  To  strenghten  and  raise  feeble,  sinful,  irresolute,  and 
suffering  man. 

c)  To  prescribe  a  rule  to  regulate  his  conduct  and  govern 
his  passions. 

3)  There  is  a  third  consideration  which  seems  to  us  to 
attach  authority  to  revelation.  It  is  its  eflicacy,  not  only 
upon  men  at  the  time  when  it  was  given,  but  also  upon 
men  in  the  future  ages  of  the  world. 

We  conclude,  therefore,  that  he  who  admits  a  revelation, 
implicitly  admits  an  authority. 

To  recapitulate:  the  efficacy  of  the  Bible  is  inseparably 
connected  with  its  authority.  Its  authority  is  as  insepa- 
rably connected  with  its  inspiration;  and  this  inspired, 
efficacious,  divine  authority  does  not  deprive  reason  of  its 
legitimate  use  as  an  instrument.  Reason  is  admissible  as 
an  instrument,  but  not  as  a  rule  and  a  judge. 
§  130.  Biblical  argument,  or  the  argument  drawn  from  the 
testimony  of  the  Scriptures. 

The  study  of  the  testimony  warrants  us  in  affirming  four 
facts  fully  attested. 

1)  The  Old  Testament  represents  its  authors  as  men 
who  professed  to  have  received  a  mission  from  heaven,  for 
the  purpose  of  transmitting  to  men  a  revelation  from  God. 
No  one  can  deny  this  of  Moses  and  the  prophets. 

2)  On  the  authority  of  the  New  Testament  we  can  affirm 
the  five  following  propositions,  which  form  five  elementary 
facts: 

a)  Jesus  Christ  promised  to  the  apostles  the  aid  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  See  Matt.  10:  19,  20;  Luke  21:  14,  15;  John 
14:  16—16:  13. 

6)  He  promised  this  aid  as  an  extraordinary  and  special 
gift  intended  for  the  extraordinary  and  special  times  of 
the  primitive  Church.    See  especially  John  15:  26—16:  4. 

c)  This  promise  was  fulfilled  in  an  extraordinary  and 
special  manner  on  the  day  of  Pentecost. 

d)  The  extraordinary  and  special  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
were  either  given  directly  to  the  fellow-laborers  of  the 
apostles,  or  transmitted  to  them  by  the  apostles  themselves. 
See  1  Cor.  12:  4—11,  28;  Rom.  12:  4—6;  Eph.  4;  11,  12;  1 
Tim.  4:  14;  Eph.  3:  5. 

e)  The  Christians  of  all  ages,  since  the  time  of  the 
apostles,  have  never  laid  claim,  when  in  the  possession  of 
sound  reason,  to  divine  inspiration,  and  to  an  authority 
like  that  of  the  apostles.  They  expect  and  receive  aid  from 
the  Holy  Spirit,  but  not  revelation  and  the  gift  of  inspired 
teaching. 

3)  The  writers  of  the  New  Testament  declare  plainly  and 
boldly  that  they  were  inspired.  No  one  can  ask  proof  more 
positive  than  is  given  in  Gal.  1:  11,  12;  Acts  15:  28;  and 
Eph.  3:  3—5. 


BIBLICAL   HERMENEUTICS.  153 

4)  The  claim  of  the  sacred  writers  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  to  a  real  inspiration  and  to  an  authority  which 
flows  from  it,  was  admitted  by  their  contemporaries  and 
successors,  and  since  the  completion  of  the  Canon  of  the 
Bible,  the  general  admission  of  the  doctrine  of  its  inspira- 
tion, by  the  Church,  is  incontestable. 

The  argument  from  testimony  furnished  by  these  four 
facts,  has  great  force. 

131.  Historical  argument. 

If  the  sacred  writers  were  not  inspired,  there  were  cer- 
tain circumstances  attending  their  ministry  which  appear 
to  us  inexplicable.  This  argument  though  not  much 
used  in  recent  discussions  of  this  subject  seems  of  a  nature 
to  impress  impartial  and  considerate  minds.  It  results 
from  the  four  following  elements: 

1)  The  first  is  of  great  moral  force.  It  is  the  change 
produced  upon  the  minds  of  the  apostles  from  and  after 
the  day  of  Pentecost. 

These  men,  whose  slowness  and  stupidity  sometimes 
grieved  the  Saviou.r,  and  astonish  us  when  reading  the 
Gospels,  became  almost,  in  an  instant,  the  authoritative 
teachers  of  the  human  race,  not  only  of  their  own  age,  but  of 
all  ages.  There  is  but  one  way  to  explain  so  strange  and 
so  complete  an  intellectual  transformation — they  were 
inspired  of  (xod. 

2)  The  second  element,  is  the  union  of  enthusiasm  with 
calm  judgment  and  good  sense,  the  complete  absence  of 
fanaticism  in  men  who  devoted  themselves  to  suffering  and 
death.  It  is  sufficient  to  mention  St.  Paul.  There  is  but 
one  solution  of  the  wonderful  history  of  his  life, — that  he 
was  under  the  special  teaching  and  guidance  of  the  Holy 
Spirit. 

3)  A  third  element  of  the  historical  proof  is  the  success  of 
the  ministry  of  the  divine  ambassadors.  Sometimes,  men 
the  most  obscure,  and,  humanly  speaking,  the  least  capable, 
were  God's  chosen  instruments.  The  establishment  of 
Christianity,  in  the  midst  of  persecutions  and  struggles,  is 
a  fact  historically  inexplicable  without  divine  intervention. 
This  divine  intervention  to  which  the  sacred  writers  appeal 
was  a  gift  of  power  and  of  knowledge,  which  was  given  to 
them  from  heaven. 

4)  The  last  element  is  the  impossibility  of  admitting  the 
general  proofs  of  revelation,  without  concluding  from  them, 
at  the  same  time,  the  inspiration  of  the  men  who  were  its 
organs.  This  is  particularly  evident  in  regard  a)  to  mirac- 
les, b)  prophecies,  c)  the  marvelous  establishment  of 
Christianty,  and  d)  the  sublimity  of  revealed  truths. 

132.  Critical  Argument. 

We  thus  designate  the  proofs  derived  from  the  nature  of 
the  Sacred  Books.    We  will  indicate  four. 

1)  The  holy  grandeur,  the  profound  truth  of  the  thoughts 
and  precepts,  and  the  lofty  aims  of  these  books;  also  their 
eloquent,  vehement,  poetical,  and  pathetic  sublimity.  The 
fact,  too,  that  a  harmony  subsists  between  the  doctrines  of 


154  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

the  sacred  writers  and  the  necessities  of  the  heart,  that  the 
most  mysterious  and  most  profound  needs  of  the  soul  are 
satisfied  in  the  Scriptures,  is  a  proof  of  great  weight, 

2)  In  the  Bible  we  perceive  a  harmony,  wiiich,  notwith- 
standing individual  and  temporary  diversities,  continued 
during  centuries  without  any  special  institution  designed 
to  maintain  it.  This  is  not' a  proof  logically  or  mathe- 
matically rigorous,  but  it  is  a  phenomenon  without  a 
parallel,  especially  on  so  vast  a  scale. 

3)  The  numerous  biblical  prophecies,  whose  fulfillment 
has  been,  or  is  still  visil^le  and  certain.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  refer  to  any  examples,  as  the  fulfillment  of  the  prophe- 
cies relating  to  the  Jews,  to  Jerusalem,  to  Babylon,  to  As- 
syria, and  to  Christ,  is  familiar  to  every  reader  of  the  Bible 
and  of  history. 

4)  We  may  mention,  finally,  not  as  a  decisive  proof,  but 
as  a  striking  and  interesting  fact,  the  struggle  which  seems 
sometimes  to  exist  in  the  sacred  writings,  between  the 
divine  superiority  of  the  thoughts  and  the  relative  inca- 
pacity of  the  language.  We  find  examples  of  this  in  cer- 
tain prophecies. 

§  133.    Argument  from  the  testimony  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

The  proof  that  tne  Sacred  Scriptures  are  inspired,  and 
consequently  possess  full  authority  in  matters  of  faith,  is 
required  only  for  those  who  are  yet  without  the  Church,  or 
who,  if  within  her  pale,  are  not  confirmed  in  the  faith. 
But  it  lies  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  that  no  proof  can  be 
given  to  those,  which  they  cannot,  in  an  unbelieving  frame 
of  mind,  evade;  for  the  only  absolutely  stringent  proof  lies 
in  the  fact,  that  the  Holy  Spirit  bears  witness  in  the  heart 
of  each  individual,  and  thus  convinces  him  of  the  divinity 
of  the  Word  of  God,  by  the  mighty  influence  which  it 
exerts  upon  him.  For  the  grand  reason  by  and  through 
which  we  are  led  to  believe  with  a  divine  and  unshaken 
faith  that  God's  Word  is  God's  Word,  is  the  intrinsic 
power  and  efficacy  of  that  Word  itself,  and  the  testimony 
and  seal  of  the  '  Holy  Spirit,  speaking  in  and  through 
Scripture. 
§  184 — 136.  Consequences. 
§  134,    General  Indetermination. 

The  proofs  which  have  just  been  considered  sufficiently 
attest  inspiration,  but  they  determine  neither  its  nature 
nor  its  degree.    To  determine  these  is  of  great  importance. 
§  135.  Consequences  from  the  proofs  adduced. 

Three  propositions  seems  to  us  to  result  from  the  proofs 
exhibited,  inasmuch  as  they  are  logical  and  necessary 
corollaries  of  the  very  idea  of  inspiration. 

1)  The  sacred  books  written  by  inspired  men,  possess  an 
authority  sufiicient  for  everything  that  pertains  to  the 
object  of  revelation. 

2)  The  Holy  Scriptures,  written  by  inspired  men,  and 
intended  to  teach  men  the  way  of  salvation,  their  duty  to 
God  and  to  one  another,  cannot  contain  errors  in  regard  to 
these  matters. 


BIBLICAL   HERMENEUTICS.  155 

3)  The  different  parts  of  the  Holy  Scripture  cannot  have 
opposite  aims.    There  must  be  harmony  among  them;  and 
taken  together  they  must  constitute  a  regular  plan. 
136.    Questions  to  be  determined. 

Many  questions  relative  to  the  mode  of  inspiration  can 
probably  not  be  solved.  But  this  is  not  the  case  with 
those  questions  that  pertain  to  the  nature  and  degree  of 
inspiration.  The  solution  of  these  questions  is  very  im- 
portant to  a  system  of  Hermeneutics,  but  their  discussion 
properly  belongs  to  Dogmatics.  We,  however,  hold  the 
doctrine  of  plenary  inspiration,  and  believe  that  all  the 
facts  of  Scripture  are  consistent  with  it.  The  divine  and 
the  human,  employed  in  its  composition,  are  so  combined 
as  to  produce  one  undivided  and  indivisible  result.  Not- 
withstanding the  exercise  of  human  agency  in  writing  the 
Bible,  it  is  all  alike  divine  and  notwithstanding  the  divine 
agency  employed  in  its  composition,  it  is  all  alike  human. 
The  divine  and  human  elements  together  constitue  a  thean- 
thropic  book.  However  inexplicable  the  union  of  the  two 
elements  in  Scripture  may  be  it  is  not  a  fact  that  stands 
alone  in  the  world.  It  has  an  analogue  in  the  Person  of  Christ. 
The  analogy  between  the  written  Word  and  the  Incarnate 
Word  is  sufficiently  indicated  in  Scripture  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  same  term  to  both.  They  are  both  called  the 
Word  of  God,  (See  also  §  XXXVI.  p.  66). 


SELECT  LITERATURE 

OF 

HERMENEUTICS. 

1.  Barrows,  E.  P.  A  new  IntrodufMon  to  the  Study  of  the  Bible. 
London  and  New  York. 

Part  fourth  contains  a  compact  presentation  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  Hermeneutics. 

2.  Davidson,  Samuel.  Sacred  Hermeiieutics  developed  and  ap- 
plied, including  a  History  of  Biblical  Interpretation.  Edin- 
burgh, 1843. 

3.  Doedes,  J.  J.  Manual  of  Hermeneutics  for  the  writings  of  the 
New  Testament,    Translated  from    the    Dutch.    Edinburgh. 

1867. 

An  excellent  little  work. 

4.  Ernesti,  J.  A.  Principles  of  Biblical  Interpretation.  Trans- 
lated from  the  Latin  by  Charles  H.  Terrot.  2  vols.  Edinburgh, 
1843. 

This  work,  though  superseded  is  still  useful. 

5.  Fairbairn,  Patrick.  Hermeneutical  Manual,  or  Introduction 
to  the  Exegetical  study  of  the  Scriptures  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment.   Edinburgh  and  Philadelphia.    1859. 


156  THEOLOGICAL  encyclop^:dta. 

Dr.  Fairbairn's  works  on  Typology  and  on  Prophecy,  are  also 
very  valuable. 

6.  Francke,  A.  H.  A  Guide  to  the  Readint/  and  Study  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  Translated  by  William  Jaques  with  life  of 
Francke.    London  and  Philadelphia,  1823, 

7.  Hofmann,  J.  Chr.  K.,  von.  Blhlische  Hermeiveutik.  iS'ach 
Manuscripten  imd  Vorlesungen  herausgegeben  von  W.  Yolck. 
Nordlingen,  1880, 

A  valuable  contribution  to  the  Science  of  Hermeneutics. 

8.  Home,  Thomas  Hartwell.  A7i  Introduction  to  the  Critical 
Study  and  Knoivledge  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  4  vols.  Four- 
teenth edition,  1877. 

The  second  volume,  revised  by  John  Ayre,  contains  an  excel- 
lent discussion  of  this  science.  We  would  again  call  special 
attention  to  the  value  of  this  edition  of  Home's  Introduction. 

9.  Im  mer,  A.  Hermeneutics  of  the  New  Testament.  Translated 
from  the  German  by  Albert  H.  I^ewman.    Andover,  1877. 

Valuable  and  suggestive,  but  too  progressive. 

10.  Lange,  J.  F.  Qrundriss  der  hihlischen  Hermeneutik.  Heidel- 
berg, 1878. 

Systematic,  compact  and  convenient  for  use. 

11.  Pareau,  J.  H.  Principles  of  Interpretation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Translated  from  the  original  Latin  by  Patrick  Forbes. 
2  vols.  Edinburgh,  1835,  1840. 

12.  Planck,  G.  J.  Introduction  to  Sacred  Philology  and  Interpre- 
tation. Translated  from  the  German  by  S.  H.  Turner.  Edin- 
burgh and  New  York,  1834. 

13.  Terry,  Milton  S.  Biblical  Hermeneutics.  A  treatise  on  the 
Interpretation  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  New  York, 
1883. 

This  is  the  fullest  work  on  this  subject  in  the  English  lang- 
uage, and  very  valuable. 

14.  Tholuck,  Augustus.  Hints  on  the  Interpretation  of  the  Old 
Testament.    Translated  by  Patton.    Edinburgh,  1833. 


SECTION    XLIX. 

EXEGESIS. 

Exegesis  is  the  actualizing  of  Hermeneutics,  the  art  of 
which  Hermeneutics  is  the  science.  The  one  gives  the  theory, 
the  other  reduces  it  to  practice. 

In  Exegesis  we  have  the  Exposition  and  explanation  of 
Scripture.  The  work  of  exposition  is  to  show  Scripture  in  its 
living  relation,  and  assists  us  in  giving  a  full  explanation  of  it. 

With  the  exposition  and  explanation  is  to  be  joined  the 
Application  of  Sci  ipture,  which  belongs  to  Practical  Theology. 


FA'EOFSIS,  157 

This  science  orig-inated  among  the  Jewish  Scribes,  passed  into 
the  Christian  Church,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  studies 
in  a  Theological  Course.  Every  theological  school  must,  first  oi"  all, 
have  a  chair  of  Exegesis  or  Biblical  Literature,— most  of  them  have 
two,  one  for  the  Old,  and  one  for  the  Xew  Testament. 

The  German  language  distinguishes  between  the  words  ausle- 
gen  and  erklartii  in  such  a  manner  that  the  former  corresponds  to 
interpretation,  the  latter  to  the  explaining  by  arguments  what 
has  been  indistinctly  understood.  The  Erkldrer  does  not  develope 
what  is  hidden  and  concealed,  but  explains  what  is  not  clear  and 
what  is  obscure.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  Ausleger  of  the  Bible 
occupies  a  position  different  from  that  of  the  Erkldrer,  although 
these  terms  are  frequently  employed  as  if  they  were  synonymous. 
The  Ausleger  opens  what  is  concealed  under  the  words  of  the  Bible, 
and  the  Church  demands  Ausleger,  I7iter2:>reters  of  God's  Word, 
not  simply  ErklClrer. 

One  of  the  most  important  helps  for  a  pastor's  thorough  prepa- 
ration for  the  pulpit  is  the  daily  habit  of  a  practical  reading  of 
Scripture.  But  on  this  we  cannot  here  dwell.  We  here  refer  to 
practical  Application  of  Scripture  in  our  public  ministrations—and 
more  especially  our  own  pnhlic  commenting  upon  the  Scripture 
read  during  divine  Service.  We  must  not  forget  that  preaching 
in  the  olden  time  consisted  very  much  more  of  exposition  than  it 
does  now.  Spurgeon  has  an  interesting  lecture  on  this  suject  of 
Commenting,^  an  outline  of  which  is  here  given. 

1)  The  Public  reading  of  the  abstruser  parts  of  Scripture  is  of 
exceedingly  little  use  to  the  majority  of  people  listening. 

2)  Brief  comments  upon  Scripture  in  our  ordinary  services  are 
most  acceptable  and  instructive  to  our  people. 

3)  If  you  are  in  the  habit  of  commenting,  it  will  give  you  an 
opportunity  of  saying  many  things  which  are  not  of  sufficient  im- 
portance to  beconae  the  theme  of  a  w^hole  Sermon. 

4)  In  order  to  execute  it  well,  the  commenting  minister  will  at 
first  have  to  study  twice  as  much  as  the  mere  preacher,  because  he 
must  prepare  both  his  sermons  and  Ms  expositions. 

5)  A  man  to  comment  well  should  be  able  to  read  the  Bible  in 
the  original.  The  Hebrew  Old  Testament  and  the  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment will  give  him  a  library  at  a  small  expense,  an  inexhaustable 
thesaurus,  a  mine  of  spiritual  wealth. 

6)  Fail  not  to  be  expert  in  the  use  of  your  Concordance. 

7)  Be  careful  in  the  study  of  your  Commentaries. 

8)  In  your  public  commenting,  point  out  very  carefully  where- 
ever  a  word  bears  a  special  sense. 

9)  Explain  obscure  and  involved  sentences.  Seek  to  make 
God's  Word  plain. 

10)  The  chief  part  of  your  commenting  should  consist  in  apply- 
ing the  truth  to  the  hearts  of  your  hearers. 

11)  Avoid  prosiness. 

12)  Avoid  pedantry. 

13)  Never  strain  passages  when  you  are  expounding. 

14)  Use  your  judgment  more  than  your  fancy. 

15)  Be  not  carried  away  with  new  meanings. 

16j  Do  not  needlessly  amend  our  Author!  ed  Version. 

*  See -Spurgeon.  C.  H.  Gomnienting  oMd  Commentaries.  Lectures,  etc.,  with  a 
list  of  the  best  Biblical  Commentaries  "and  Expositions,  etc.    New  York,  1876. 


158  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

17)  Be  careful  in  the  reading  of  God's  Word,  to  bring  out  the 
sense.    See  Neh.  8:  8. 

18)  Commentaries,  expositions,  interpretations,  are  all  mere 
scaffolding;  the  Holy  Ghost  himself  must  edify  you  and  help  you 
to  build  up  the  Church  of  the  Living  God. 


SECTION  L 

METHOD   OF    EXEGESIS, 

As  to  its  method,  Exegesis  may  vary.  The  various  com- 
mentaries show  the  different  modes  in  which  it  may  be  applied. 
To  the  aids  of  Exegesis  belong  pre-eminently  : 

i)  Translations  and  Paraphrase.  It  is  usual  here  to  dis- 
tinguish the  ancient  translations  from  the  modern  ones. 

2)  Commentaries, 

3)  Other  aids  to  the  expositor,  consisting  largely  of  mis- 
cellanies, periodicals,  etc. 

How  can  the  exegete  best  prosecute  his  labors  ? 

1)  It  is  self-evident  that  it  cannot  be  done  without  helps;  but 
he  must  not  be  too  dependent  on  them.  The  right  method  is  to  accus- 
tom oneself  to  examine  every  thought  of  the  author  first  witliout  a 
Commentary,  and  by  exerting  one  self  to  the  utmost,  to  under- 
stand these  thoughts.  Then  exegetical  help  consulted,  will  really 
afford  information. 

2)  We  are  never  to  investigate  the  subject-matter,  before  the 
grammatical  sense  has  been  ascertained.  Grammatical  and  lexical 
means  are  to  be  first  applied,  before  it  is  attempted  to  approach  the 
author  from  another  side. 

3)  The  different  kinds  of  investigations— the  grammatical,  the 
historical,  the  scriptural  and  the  doctrinal,  should  not  be  mixed 
with  each  other.    There  must  be  07xler  in  the  investigation. 

4)  Not  unfrequently  one  may  be  led  away  into  more  extended 
investigations  of  a  critical,  a  linguistic,  an  historical  or  archaeo- 
logical question.  Such  investigations  are  not  to  be  avoided,  and 
may  be  of  great  value  at  another  time,  but  the  principal  matter  is 
to  be  kept  always  in  view. 

5)  All  single  investigations  must  labor  towards  the  good  of  the 
most  perfect  possible  understanding  of  the  whole. 

All  such  exegetical  study  has  for  its  principal  object  exegetical 
impartation  to  others.  This  is  a  skill  to  be  attained  only  through 
practice. 

Before  an  exegete  can  communicate  the  result  of  his  study  to 
others : 

1)  He  ought  to  have  as  clear  and  transparent  an  understanding 
of  the  meaning  as  possible. 

2)  He  must  have  all  his  exegetical  knowledge  arranged  in  his 
mind,  at  his  disposal,  in  the  right  place. 

3)  He  must  know  the  nature  of  the  public  to  whom  he  is 
to  communicate  the  understanding  of  a  writing. 


LITERATUKE  OF  EXEGESIS.  159 

4)  He  will  therefore  present  the  matter  in  one  way  to  an  illite- 
rate public,  where  the  great  object  is  the  practical  one  of  editica- 
tion;  in  another  way  to  young  men  just  entering  upon  the  science 
of  exegesis,  where  the  principal  aim  is  to  introduce  the  hearers  into 
exegetical  praxis  and  methods,  and  in  another  way  to  the  learned 
who  have  had  much  experience  in  exegesis. 

5)  But  be  the  audience  what  it  may,  the  interpreter  is  only  to 
impart  that  which  ministers  to  his  main  object. 

6)  Xor  is  it  necessary  that  the  exegete  present  all  that  the 
exegetical  helps  furnish. 

7)  The  ideal  of  the  explanation  is  this,  that  the  hearer  be  led 
step  by  step  to  the  understanding  of  the  author,  so  that  he  may 
believe,  as  it  were,  that  he  has  himself  found  out  the  meaning. 
It  mast  be  shown  not  only  what  the  right  sense  is,  but  also  wliy 
it  is  so. 

8)  The  exegete  can  never  dispense  w^ith,  at  least,  what  is  essen- 
tial to  previous  investigation  of  his  own,  i.  e.,  textual  criticism, 
verbal  explanation,  explanation  of  the  subject-matter,  together 
with  religious  comprehension  of  the  thought. 

Of  Commentaries  we  may  distinguish  again  three  kinds: 

1)  Philological  or  grammatico-historical  exegesis  brings  out 
simply  the  meaning  of  the  writer  according  to  the  laws  of  lang- 
uage, and  the  usus  loquendi  at  the  time  of  composition,  and  accor- 
ding to  the  historical  situation  of  the  writer,  irrespective  of  any 
doctrinal  or  sectarian  bias.  It  implies  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  familiarity  with  contemporary  literature. 

2)  Theological  exegesis  develops  the  doctrinal  and  ethical  ideas 
of  the  writer  in  organic  connection  with  the  whole  teaching  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  according  to  the  analogy  of  Faith. 

3)  Homiletical  or  practical  exegesis  is  the  application  of  the 
well-ascertained  results  of  grammatical  and  theological  interpre- 
tation to  the  wants  of  the  Christian  congregation,  and  belongs  pro- 
perly to  the  pulpit. 


SELECT  LITERATURE 

OF 

EXEGESIS. 

1.     COMMENTARIES  ON  THE  WHOLE  BIBLE. 

Cambridge  Bible  for  /Schools  and  Colleges.  General  editor, 
J.J.  S.  Perowne,  Dean  of  Peterborough.  Cambridge.  22  vol- 
umes have  already  appeared. 

These  little  works  are  of  far  greater  value  than  many  of  the 
larger  and  more  elaborate  commentaries. 

Critical  and  Experimental  Commentary.  A  Commentary, 
critical,  experimental,  and  practical,  on  the  Old  and  New 
Testament.  By  Robert  Jamieson,  A.  R.  Fausset,  and  David 
Brown.    6  vols.    Philadelphia,  1875. 

An  excellent  commentary  at  a  comparatively   cheap   price 
($15.00). 


160  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA, 

3.  Dachsel,  Aug.  Die  Bibel,  etc.,  mit  in  den  Text  eingeschalteter 
Anslegimg-,  ausfuehrl.  Inhaltsangaben,  etc.  7  vols.  Leipsic, 
1880. 

One  of  the  best  of  modern  popular  Commentaries. 

4.  Ellicott,  Charles  John.  An  Old  Testament  Commentary  for 
English  Readers.  By  various  writers.  6  vols.  American  edition. 
New  York. 

-.    A  New  Testament  Commentary,  etc.,  3  vols. 

New  York. 

Conservative  and  scholarly,  incorporating  all  the  latest 
results  of  criticism  and  exploration.  We  have  never  con- 
sulted it  in  vain, 

5.  Lange,  John  Peter.  A  Commentary  on  the  Holy  8criptu7'es : 
critical,  doctrinal,  and  homiletical,  with  special  reference  to 
ministers  and  students.  Translated  from  the  German,  and 
edited,  with  additions,  original  and  selected,  by  Philip  Schaff, 
in  connection  with  American  Scholars  of  various  evangelical 
denominations.  25  vols.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.  New  York, 
1867—82. 

The  most  complete  commentary  on  the  whole  Bible  ever 
published,  presenting  the  united  scholarship  of  the  theological 
world.  Por  reference,  and  even  for  close  study,  the  scholar 
cannot  do  without  it.    All  schools  of  theology  are  represented. 

6.  Poole,  Matthew.  Annotations  upon  the  Holy  Bible ;  wherein 
the  sacred  text  is  inserted,  and  various  readings  annexed,  to- 
gether with  the  parallel  scriptures;  the  more  difficult  terms  in 
each  verse  are  explained,  seeming  contradictions  reconciled, 
questions  and  doubts  resolved,  and  the  whole  text  opened.  3 
vols.    New  York,  1856.    (Cheap  edition). 

First  printed  in  1683,  a  work  that  has  not  yet  been  superseded, 
a  marvel  of  erudition  and  expository  tact. 

7.  Pulpit  Commentary,  The.  Edited  by  Canon  Spence  and  Joseph 
S.  Exell.  With  Introductions  by  Canon  Farrar,  Principal 
TuUoch,  Canon  Eawlinson,  etc.   London  and  New  York. 

This  promises  to  be  one  of  the  most  comprehensive  and 
suggestive  of  commentaries.  Fifteen  volumes  have  already 
appeared. 

8.  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge.  The  Old  Testa- 
ment according  to  the  Authorised  Version.  With  a  brief  Com- 
mentary. 5  volumes  including  the  Apocrypha.  London,  1876. 
- The  New  Testament,  etc.    2  vols.  1876. 

Prepared  by  some  of  the  best  scholars  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land.   A  marvel  of  cheapness  and  strictly  evangelical. 

9.  Speaker's  Commentary.  The  Holy  Bible  according  to  the 
Authorised  version,  with  an  explanatory  and  critical  Commen- 
tary and  a  revision  of  the  Translation  by  Bishops  and  other 
clergy  of  the  Anglican  Church.  Edited  by  F.  C.  Cook,  Canon 
of  Exeter.    10  vols.    London  and  New  York,  1871—81. 

A  work  that  cannot  be  recommended  too  highly.  Prepared 
by  some  of  the  most  eminent  exegetes  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, strictly  evangelical  and  churchly  presenting  all  the  latest 
positive  results  of  best  Continental  scholarship. 


LITERATURE  OF  EXEGESIS.  161 

10.  Starke,  Christoph.  Synopns,  etc.,  das  ist  kurzgrefasster  Aus- 
zug  der  gruendliehsten  und  niitzbarsten  Ausleg-iin^en  iieber 
Jlj|-K"echer  der  heiligen  Schrift.    11  vols.  New  edition.  Berlin, 

A  well-known  work,  valuable  especially  for  its  full  analvsis 
ot  Scripture.  It  holds  its  own  after  the  lapse  of  a  century  and 
a  nail. 

11.  Vilniar,  Au^.  F.  Chr.  Collegium  Bihlimm.  Praktische  Erk- 
larung  der  heiligen  Schrift  Alten  und  Neuen  Testaments  Ilvr- 
ausgegeben  von  Christian  Mueller.    6  vols.    Guetersloh,  1879- 

A  work  that  cannot  be  too  highly  recommended  to  the  theo- 
logical student. 

12.  Weimarische  Bibelioerk.  Xach  den  letzten  Ausgabe  von  1768 
unverandert  abgedruckt.  One  large  quarto  volume.  St.  Louis 
1877.  ' 

Especially  valuable,  as  it  incorporates  the  views  of  our  older 
theologians,  especially  those  of  John  Gerhard. 

2.      COMMENTARIES     ON     THE     OLD   TESTAMENT,   OR     ON    CONSIDE- 
RABLE  PORTIONS   THEREOF. 

1.  Hengstenl)erg,  E.  W.  ClirMology  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
a  commentary  on  the  Messianic  Predictions.  Second  edition 
4  vols.  Edinburgh,  1857. 

; u--;o;:----  Commentary  on  the  Psalms.    3  vols.   Edin- 
burgh,  18o4. 

, ------  ^^Glesiastes  with  treatises  on  the  Sonff  of  So- 
lomon, on  Job,  on  Isaiah,  etc,  1  vol.  Edinburgh. 

--....     The  Prophecies  of  EzeUel  ehlcidated.    1  vol 

-Edinburgh. 
All    that   Hengstenberg  has  written  is  worthy  of  careful 

SLUQy, 

^'  ^^^\i^i'  m\^^^  Delitzsch,  Franz.  Bihliml  Commentary  on 
the  Old  JeMamerit.  2o  vols,  T.  and  T.  Clark.  Edinburgh 
iakmg  all  things  into  consideration  this  is  the  best  critical 
commentary  on  the  Old  Testament  published.  Keil  treats  the 
Historical  Books,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  and  the  Minor 
i  rophets,  and  is  at  his  best  in  his  commentarv  on  Joshua  and 
the  Minor  prophets,-at  his  poorest  on  the  Pentateuch.  Delitzsch 
writes  on  the  remaining  books,  and  for  deep  spiritual  insight 
and  richness  of  oriental  learning  takes  the  very  highest  rank 
as  an  exegete.  ®       i^iaaiv 

3.  Kurzgefasztes  exegetisches  Handhuch  zum  A.  Testament  17 
vols.  Leipsic. 

Contains  work  of  unequal  merit,  and  tinged  with  the  spirit 
of  the  Newer  Criticism.  Among  its  contributors,  however  are 
some  of  the  best  Hebrew  scholars  of  our  age,  as,  e.  7.,  Dillnuinn 
Knobel,  Bertheau,  Justus  Olshausen,  etc. 

4.  Reuss,  Ed.  La  Bible.  Traduction  nouvelle  avec  introductions 
et  commentaires.  Ancien  Testament.  Seven  volumes.  Paris 
1870,  etc,  ' 

Regarded  as  the  best  commentary  on  the  Old  Testament 
prepared  by  a  single  scholar.  Unfortunatelv,  however  the 
author  grants  to  much  to  rationalistic  critics.  ^ 


162  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

2.      COMMENTARIES   ON  THE  PENTATEUCH. 

a)  On  the  whole  or  greater  portion  thereof. 
1.    Gerlach,  Otto  von.    Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch.    1 
vol.  T.  and  T.  Clark.     Edinburgh. 

2.  Kalisch,  M,  M.  A  Historical  and  Critical  Commentary  on 
the  Old  Testament,  with  a  new  Translation.  Genesis  (1  vol.), 
Exodus  (1  vol.),  Leviticus  (2  vols.),  The  prophecies  of  Balaam 
(1  vol,).    Longmans,  Green  and  Co.    London. 

There  are  two  editions  of  each  commentary,  one,  Hebrew 
and  English,  and  the  other,  an  abridged  English  edition. 

Though  very  valuable,  these  commentaries  have  a  Jewish 
anti-Christian  tone. 

3.  Murphy,  James  G.  Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentaries 
on  Genesis,  Exodus,  and  Leviticus.  With  a  ncAW  translation. 
3  separate  volumes.    Warren  F.  Draper.    Andover. 

These    commentaries  are  conservative    and  take  the  very 
highest  rank. 
h)  Genesis, 

1.  Delitzsch,  Franz.  Commentar  ueber  die  Genesis,  etc.  Fourth 
edition.    Leipsic,  1872. 

The  scholar  cannot  be  without  it, 

2.  Jacobus,  Melanchthon  W.  Notes  on  the  Book  of  Genesis. 
2  vols,  in  one.  New  York. 

A  valuable  work. 

3.  Luther,  Martin.  Enarrationes  in  Genesin.  In  his  collected 
works. 

This  is  the  most  comprehensive  and  richest  of  all  his  exege- 
tical works,  prepared  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  1536—1545. 
The  iirst  five  chapters  have  been  translated  intoEnglish  by 
Henry  Cole  (Edinburgh,  1858). 

4.  Wright,  C.  H,  H.  Book  of  Genesis  in  Hehrem,  with  various 
readings,  notes,  etc.    London,  1859. 

Of  value  to  the  student  of  Hebrew. 

c)  Exodus. 

1.  Bush,  George.    Notes  on  Exodus.    2  vols.     1865. 

Still  of  considerable  value,  as  also  are  his  other  commentaries 
on  the  different  books  of  the  Pentateuch. 

2.  Cook  and  Clark.    In  Speaker's  Commentary. 

liemarkable  for  the  great  knowledge  of  Egyptian  history  and 
of  the  ancient  Egyptian  language  which  it  displays. 

3.  Dillmann  and  Knobel.  In  Knrzgefasztes  extgetisches  Hand- 
buch. 

Though  rationalistic  to  a  certain  extent,  a  commentary  of 
vast  and  varied  learning. 

4.  Hengstenberg,  E.  AV.  Egypt  and  the  Books  of  Moses.  1  vol. 
Edinburgh. 

In  the  main  a  comment  on  Exodus,  and  still  valuable. 

d)  Lemtic'iis. 

1.     Bonar,  Andrew  A.     A  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Leviticus, 
expository  and  practical.    With  critical  notes.    London. 
Takes  the  very  highest  rank. 


LITERATURE  OF  EXEGESIS.  163 

2.     Ginsbiirg,  Christian  D.    Levitvms  in  EUicott's  Commentary. 
Especially  valuable. 
6)  Numbers  and  Deuteronomy. 
1.     Lange  and  Schaff.    In  their  Commentary. 

One  of  the  l)est  commentaries  on  these  books. 
/)  Miscellaneous  Works  on  the  Pentateauch. 

1.  Birks,  T.  K.  The  Exodus  of  Israel;  its  dilFiculties  examined 
and  its  truths  confirmed;  with  a  reply  to  recent  objections. 

2.  Bonar,  Horatius,  Earth's  Morning  ;  or  Thongfhts  on  Genesis. 
London,  1875. 

An  explanation  of  the  first  six  chapters  only. 

3.  Candlish,  llobert.  The  Book  of  Oenesis,  expounded  in  a  series 
of  discourses.  New  edition,  carefully  revised.  2  vols.  Edin- 
bur^.     1868. 

A  work  that  ought  to  be  in  every  theological  library. 

4.  Curtiss,  Samuel  S.  The  Ltmtical  Priests.  A  contribution  to 
the  Criticism  of  the  Pentateuch.    Edinlnirgh,  1877. 

5.  Dawson,  J.  W.  The  Origin  of  the  World,  according  to  Revel- 
ation and  Science.    New  York,  1877. 

6.  Fuller,  Andrew.    Expository  Discourses  on  Genesis.    London. 

Yerv  valuable. 

7.  Geikie,  Cunningham.  Hours  tuith  the  Bible;  or,  the  Scriptures 
in  the  light  of  modern  di^rcovery,  etc.  Volumes  one  and  two. 
iSTew  York. 

8.  Gibson,  J,  Monroe.  The  Ages  before  Moses.  Twelve  lectures  on 
the  Book  of  Genesis,    New  York,  1879. 

9.  Godet,  F.    Biblical  Studies  on  the  Old  Testament.    Xew  York. 

10.  Green,  William  Henry.  Moses  and  the  Pro-phets.  A  review 
of  W.  Robertson  Smith's  Old  Testament  of  the  Jewish  Church, 
Kuenen's  Prophecy  and  Prophets  in  Israel,  and  W.  Robertson 
Smith's  Prophets  of  Israel.    New  York,  1883. 

A  most  able  answ^er  to  the  critical  theories  of  Wellhausen, 
Kuenen  and  Robertson  Smith. 

11.  Guyot,  Arnold.  Creation,  or  The  Biblical  Cosmogony  in  the 
light  of  modern  science.    New  York,  1884. 

12.  Ilengstenberg,  E,  W.  Dissertations  on  the  Genuineness  of  the 
Pentateuch.    2  vols.    Edinburgh,  1847. 

13.  Jukes,  Andrews.  The  Types  of  Genesis  briefly  considered,  etc. 
London,  1875. 

The  Law  of  the  Offerings  in  Leviticus,  1—1,  etc. 

London  and  Boston. 
These  works  are  very  suggestive. 

14.  Kurtz.  John  Henry.  The  Bible  and  Astronomy  ;  an  exposition 
of  the  Biblical  Cosmology,  and  its  relations  to  Natural  Science. 
Philadelphia,  1861. 

15.  Lawson,  George.    Lectures  on  Joseph.    2  vols.    Edinburgh. 

16.  Pratt,  John  H.  Scripture  and  Science  not  at  variance;  etc. 
Seventh  edition.    London,  1872. 

17.  Seiss,  Joseph  A.  i^o/^  I'^/i^es;  or,  The  Gospel  in  Leviticus.  A 
series  of  lectures  on  the  Hebrew  Ritual.    Philadelphia. 

Very  valuable. 


164  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOriEDIA. 

18.  Watts,  Rol)ert.  The  Newer  Critwism  and  the  Analogy  of  Faith. 
A  reply  to  Lectures  by  W.  Rol)ertson  Smith  on  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  Jeioish  Church.    Third  edition.    Edinburgh,  1882. 

19.  Wiiliams,  Isaac.  Beginning  of  Genesis,  with  notes.  London, 
1861. 

Worthy  of  careful  reading. 

4.      COMMENTARIES  ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 

a)  Joshua. 

1.  Bush,  George.    Notes  on  Joshua.    New  York,  1861. 

2.  Cfdvin,  John.  Commentary  iq^on  Joshua.  Translated  from 
the  Latin,    Edinburgh,  1854. 

Calvin  is  a  prince  among  expositors. 

3.  Crosby,  Howard.  Expository  Notes  on  the  Book  of  Joshua. 
Xew  York,  1875. 

4.  Fay,  F.  R.    llie  Book,  of  Joshua.    In  Lange's  Series. 

Excellent. 

5.  Keil,  C.  E.  Commentary  upon  Joshua.    Edinburgh,  1857. 

The  best  commentary  on  Joshua  extant. 
6)  Judges  and  Ruth. 

1.  Bush,  George.    Notes  on  Judges.    New  York,  1852. 

Of  considerable  value. 

2.  Cassel,  Paulus.    Judges  and  Ruth.    In  Lange's  Series. 

Very  valuable  and  suggestive. 

3.  Lawson,  George.  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Ruth.  Edinburgh, 
1805. 

4.  Morison,  James.     On  Ruth.    In  the  Pulpit  Commentary. 

Cannot  be  too  highly  recommended. 

5.  Tyng,  Stephen.  The  Rich  Kinsman;  or,  the  History  of  Ruth. 
New  York. 

6.  Wright,  C.  H.  H.  Ruth  in  Hebrew ;  with  grammatical  and 
critical  commentary.    London,  1864. 

c)  1  and 2  Samuel,  1  and  2  Kings,  1  and  2  Chronicles,  Ezra, 

Nehemiah,  and  Esther. 
On  these  books  the  commentaries  in  Lange's  Series  (Samuel 
by  Erdmann,  Kings  by  Bahr,  Chronicles  by  Zockler,  Ezra  and 
Esther  by  Schultz,  Xehemiah  by  Howard  Crosby),  and  in  the 
Pulpit  Commentary,  take  the  very  highest  rank. 
AVordsworth's  Holy  JJible  ivith  Notes  is  also  very  valuable,  and  con- 
tains many  useful  quotations  from  patristic  writers. 

d)  Miscellaneous  works  on  the  Historical  Books. 

1.  Davidson,  Alex,  Lectures, expository  and  practical,  on  the  Book 
of  Esther,  Edinburgh,  1859. 

2.  Edersheim,  A.  The  Temple.  Its  iuinistry  and  services.  Lon- 
don, 1874. 

Israel  under  Samuel,  Saul  and  David,  etc,    Lon- 
don, 1878. 

3.  Geikie,  Cunningham.  Hoars  fvith  the  Bible.  Volumes  two 
and  three.    New  York. 


LITERATURE  OF  EXEGESIS.  165 

4.  Hacket,  II.  13.    Illmtratiom  of  Scri^ytnre,  etc.    Boston,  1868. 

5.  Hall,  Joseph.  Contemplatiom  of  the  Hwtorwal  Passages  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments.    London,  18B8. 

6.  Krammacher,  F.  W.    Elijah  the  TishhUe. 
7 Elisha. 

8.     Lawson,  George.    Discourses  on  the  History  of  David.    1833. 
9 Discourses  on  Esther.    Edinburgh,  1804. 

10.  Macduff,  J.  R.     The  Prophet  of  Fire.    New  York,  1864. 

11.  Mt'Crie,  Thomas.    Lectures  on  Esther.     1838. 

12    Rawlinson,  George.    Historical  Illustrations  of  the  Old  Testament. 

1873. 
13 The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World, 

etc.    Three  vols.    New  York. 

14.  Stanley,  A.  P.    Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Jewish  Church.  3  vols. 
New  York,  1870. 

15 Sinai  and  Palestine.    New  York,  1875. 

15.  Taylor,  William.    David,  King  of  Israel ;  his  life  and  its  lessons. 
New  York,  1875. 

19,    Elijah  the  Prophet.    New  York,  1876. 

5.     COMMENTARIES  ON  THE  POETICAL  BOOKS. 

a)  Job. 

1,  Cook,  F.  C.    Job.    In  the  Speaker's  Commentary. 

Takes  the  very  highest  rank. 
2      Cox,  Samuel.    A  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Job,  with  a  translation. 

London,  1880. 
3.     Davidson,  A.  B.    The  Book  of  Job.    In  the  Cambridge  Bible  for 
Schools  and  Colleges.  . 

Takes  the  very  highest  rank.  We  know  of  no  commentaries 
superior  to  these  works  of  Cook  and  Davidson,  for  a  popular 
and  yet  scholarly  exposition  of  this  sublime  poem. 

4  Delitzsch,  Franz.    On  Job.    In  Keil  and  Delitzsch's  Commentary. 

This  is  the  best  critical  commentary  on  the  Book  of  Job  ex- 
tant. 

5  Dillmann,  A.    In  Exegetisches  Handbuch. 

Gives  the  most  satifactory  summary  of  modern  criticism  on 
this  book. 
6.     Zockler,  Otto.    Job.    In  Lange's  Commentary. 
One  of  the  best  in  the  series. 
b)  The  Psalms. 
1      Alexander,  Joseph  Addison.     The  Psalms  translated  and  explained. 
2  vols.    New  York,  1873. 
Occupies  a  first  place  among  expositions. 

2,  Barnes,  Albert.    Notes  on  the  Psalms.    3  vols.    New  York,  1870. 

3,  Binnie,  William,    The  Psalms :  their  history,  teachings,  and  use. 
London,  1859. 

4      Bonar.  Andrew.  Christ  and  His  Church  in  the  Book  of  Psalms.   Lon- 
don, 1858. 


166  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

5.  Delitzsch,  Franz,  Commentary  on  the  Psalms.  3  vols.  Edinburgh; 
1871. 

One  of  the  best  of  the  critical  commentaries. 

6.  Hengstenl)erg-,  E.W.  Commentary  on  the  Psalms.  3  vols.  Edinburgh. 

7.  Hupfeld,  H.  Die  Psalmen,  etc,  4  vols.  Second  edition.  Gotha> 
1867—72. 

ValUfUjle  on  account  of  its  history  of  interpretation  and  phi- 
lological notes.  Of  the  critical  school  however,  mainly  in  op- 
position to  Hengstenberg. 

8.  Jennings,  A.  C,  and  Lowe,  W.  II.  The  Psalms,  with  Introduc- 
tions and  critical  notes,    2  vols.    1877. 

Valualjle  for  the  beginner  in  Hebrew. 

9.  Kay,  William.     The  Psalms,  etc.    London,  1871. 

10.  Murphy,  James.    On  the  Psalms,  etc.    Andover,  1875. 

11.  Neale,  John  Mason,  and  Littledale,  R.  F.  A  Commentary  on  the 
Psalms,  from  primitive  and  mediaeval  writers.  2  vols,  London 
1860—74. 

A  devotional  commentary,  containing  a  wonderful  collec- 
tion of  allegorical  interpretations. 

12.  Perowne,  J,  J.  S.     The  Book  of  Psalms,  etc.  2  vols.  Andover.  1879- 

A  valuable  work. 

13.  Phillips,  George.     The  Psalms  in  Hebrew,  etc.    London,  1848. 

The  Hebrew  text  is  given,  with  a  valuable  critical,  exegeti- 
cal,  and  philological  commentary. 

14.  Spurgeon,  Charles  IT.  The  Treasury  of  David,  etc.  6  vols.  1870—. 
The  most  voluminous  work  on  the  Psalms  extant  in  the  Eng- 
lish language, 

e)  Proverbs. 

1.  Arnot,  Williams.  Laws  from  Heaven  for  life  on  Earth:  Illustra- 
tions of  the  Book  of  Proverbs.    London,  1857. 

Practical  and  suggestive. 

2.  Bridges,  Charles.    Proverbs:  an  exposition.    New  York,   1865. 

The  standard  work. 

3.  Delitzsch,  Franz.  Commentary  on  Proverbs.  2  vols.  Edin- 
burgh, 1875. 

For  a  critical  commentary  excels  all  others. 

4.  Plumptre,  E.  H.    In  the  Speaker's  Commentary. 

One  of  the  best  of  modern  commentaries. 

5.  Thomas,  David.     The  Practical  Philosopher,  etc.    London. 

This  excellent  work  contains  brief  and  suggestive  moral  rea- 
dings on  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  for  every  day  in  the  year. 

6.  Wardland,  Ralph.  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Proverbs.  3  vols. 
London,  1866. 

d)  Ecclesiasies. 

1.  Bridges,   Charles.    Exposition  of  Ecelesiastes.    New  York,  1860. 

2.  Buchanan,  Robert.  Ecelesiastes;  its  meaning  and  its  lessons, 
etc.    London,   1859, 

3.  Cox,  iSamuel.  The  Quest  of  the  Chief  Good.  Expository  lectures 
on  the  Book  of  Ecelesiastes.    London,  1868. 


LITERATURE  OF  EXEGESIS.  167 

4.  Belitzsch.  Franz.    Ecdesiastes.    Edinljiirgh. 

The  best  critical  commentary  on  this  book. 

5.  Ginsbiirg,  Christian  D.  Koheleth,  or  Ecdesiastes,  etc.  London, 
1857. 

Valuable  especially  for  its  full  literature. 

0.  Hamilton,  James.  The  Royal  Preacher.  Lectures  on  Ecdesias- 
tes.   New  York,  1870. 

7.  Ilengstenberg-,  E.  W.  Commentary  on  Ecdesiastes.  l^o  which  are 
appended:  Treatises  on  the  Song  of  Solomon;  on  the  Booh  of  Job; 
on  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  etc.    Edinlnirgh,  1860. 

8.  Macdonald,  James.    Ecdesiastes.    Xew  York,  1856. 

9.  PJumptre,  E.  H.  Ecdesiastes;  or  the  Preacher.  In  the  Cam- 
bridg-e  Bible  for  Schools  and  Colleges. 

A  most  valuable  popular  commentary. 

10.  Stuart,  Moses.    A  Commentary  on  Ecdesiastes.    New  York,  1851. 

11.  Wardlaw,  Ralph.    Lectures  on  Ecdesiastes.    Philadelphia,  1868. 

12.  Wright,  Charles  H.  H.  The  Book  of  Koheleth,  considert^xl  in  rela- 
tion to  modern  criticism  and  to  the  doctrines  of  modern  Pess- 
imism, with  a  critical  and  grammatical  commentary.  London, 
1882. 

Takes  the  very  highest  rank. 

13.  Zockler,  (3tto.    In  Lange's  Commentary. 

Very  valua))le. 

e)  Song  of  Solomon. 

1.  Burrowes,  George.  A  Commentary  on  the  Song  of  Solomon.  Second 
edition,  revised.    Philadelphia,  1867. 

2.  Delitzsch,  Franz.  Song  of  Soiomon.  In  his  Commentary  on  the 
Books  of  Solomon, 

3.  Gill,  John.  An  Exposition  on  the  Book  of  Solomon's  Sonq.  Reprinted. 
London,  1854. 

This  is  a  different  work  from  the  author's  Exposition  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  a  work  which  deserves  to  l)e  better 
known  than  it  is.  Gill  excelled  in  Rab])inical  learning,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  learned  scholars  of  his  day. 

4.  Ginsburg,  Christian  D  A  Translation,  with  a  Commentary,  histori- 
cal and  critical.    London,  1857. 

5.  Stuart,  A.  Moody.  Song  of  Solomon.  Exposition,  with  critical 
notes.    London,  1860. 

6.  Thrupp,  J.  F.  Song  of  Solomon.  New  translation,  with  commen- 
tary.   London,  1862. 

7.  Withington,  Leonard.  Solomon' s  Song  ivan^l^teil  and  explained. 
Boston,  1861. 

/)  Miscellaneous  Works  on  the  Poetical  Books. 

1.  Ki_tto,  John.  Daily  Bible  Illustrations,  etc.  8  vols  in  4.  New  York, 
1870. 

The  best  edition  is  that  revised  and  enlarged  by  J.  L.  Porter, 
but  it  is  more  expensive  and  is  published  in  8  vols. 

2.  Ewald,  II.  Die  Diehter  des  alien  Bundes.  Third  edition.  Gottin- 
gen  1866—67. 


168  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

3.  Luther,  Martin.  Psalmen-Auslegung.  Ein  Cominentar  zii  den 
poet.  od.  Lehrbuechern  d.  Alten  Testaments.  Aus  seinen 
werken  gesammelt  imd  bearb.  von  Chr.  G.  Eberle.  3  vols. 
Stuttgart,  1874—79. 

6.      COMMENTARIES  ON  THE   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS. 

A.    The  Major  Prophets, 
a)  Isaiah. 

1.  Alexander,  Joseph  Addison.  The  Prophecies  of  IsaiaJi,  ear- 
lier and  later.  (Unabridged  edition).  2  vols.  Xew  York,  1878. 

Probably  the  most  valuable  commentary  on  the  book  extant 
in  any  language. 

2.  Birks,  T.  R.  A  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Isaiah,  etc.  Second 
edition.    London,  1878. 

3.  Cheyne,  T.  K.  TJie  Prophecies  of  Isaiah.  A  new  translation 
with  commentary  and  appendices.  Third  edition,  revised.  2 
vols,  in  one.    New  York,  1884. 

Written  in  the  spirit  of  the  newer  criticism,  but  worthy  of 
careful  study. 

4.  Cowles,  Henry.    Isaiah  with  iiotes.    New  York,  1869. 

Cowles  has  written  a  commentary  on  the  whole  Bible,  and 
his  notes  are  suggestive,  and  on  the  whole,  very  satisfactory. 

5.  Delitzsch,  Franz.  Biblical  Commentary  on  Isaiah.  2  vols. 
Edinburgh,  1862. 

Of   the   highest   exegetical  value,  as  is  everything  which 
Delitzsch  has  written  on  the  Bible. 

6.  Strachey,  Edward.  Jewish  History  and  Politics  in  the 
times  of  l:iargon,  etc.    Second  edition.    London,  1874. 

7.  Nagelsbach,  C.  W.  E.  Tiie  Prophet  Isaiah.    In  Lange's  series. 

A  most  valuable  contribution  to  the  series, 
b)  Jeremiah  and  Lamentatioiis. 

1.  Keil,  C.  F.  Biblical  Commentary  on  the  Old  Testament. 
Jeremiah  and  Lamentations.    2  vols.    Edinburgh,  1874. 

2.  Nagelsbach,  C.  W.  E,  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations.  In  Lange's 
series. 

Very  valuable. 

3.  Smith,  R.  Payne.  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations.  In  Speaker's 
Commentary. 

One  of  the  best  of  modern  expositions. 

4.  Streane,  A.  W.  The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Jeremiah  together 
with  Lamentations.  In  the  Cambridge  Bible  for  Schools  and 
Colleges.    An  excellent  work. 

c)  Ezekiel. 

1.  Cowles,  Henry.  Ezekiel  and  Baniel,  with  notes,  critical,  ex- 
planatory, and  practical.    New  York,  1867. 

Very  instructive. 

2.  Fairbairn,  Patrick.    Ezekiel,  etc.    Edinl)urgh,  1851. 

One  of  the  best  commentaries  on  this  book,  which  has  been 
called  the  "most  neglected  of  the  Prophets." 

3.  Guthrie,  Thomas.    The  Gospel  in  Ezekiel.    New  York,  1870. 

4.  Henderson,  Ebenezer.  Ezekiel  with  a  Commentary,  critical 
philological,  and  exegetical.    Andover.  1870. 


LTTERATUllE  OF  EXEGESIS.  169 

5.  Hengstenberg-,    E.  W.    The  Prophecies  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel 
elueidated.    Edinburgh,  1869.  jt  lupntiu  azemeb 

(d)  Daniel. 

2.  Barnes,  Albert.    Notes  on  Daniel.    :N'ew  York, 

One  of  the  best  of  the  many  commentaries  written  by  this 
American  scholar.  ^ 

3.  Fuller  J   M.    DameZ.  In  ^S^^ea^er'*  Commentary.    Takes  the 
very  highest  rank.  ^ 

^'     1872'  ^*  ^'  ^""''^"'^^^^^^'^Z  0^  ^7ie  ^00^  o/  Daniel.    Edinburgh, 
^*     foof  ^'  ^'  ^-  ^"^^^^'^^  ^^^^  Prophet.    Nine  Lectures.    New  York 
The  standard  work  on  Daniel. 

6.  Rule,  William  Harris.    Historiml  Exp)osition  of  Daniel.    Lon- 
cion,  loo9. 

7.  Stuart,  Moses.    A  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Daniel,  Boston, 

_  Valuable  on  account  of  grammatical  notes  for  the  beginner 
m  Hebrew.  sii^xaci 

8.  Zockler  Otto.    On  Daniel.    In  Lange's  Series 

Very  valuable. 

B.    The  Minor  Prophets. 

a)  On  the  Minor  Prophets  as  a  whole. 
^'     ?876  ^^^'  ^^'^^^'    ^^^^  "^^'^^^'^  Prophets,  with  notes.    New  York, 

^'     doTer'^lS  ^'^^''''^^^-    ^^'^  ^'^^^^'^^  ^^'^^^^^  Prophets,  etc.  An- 
3,     Keil,  C,  F.  Commentary  on  the  Minor  Prophets.    Edinburgh, 

Keil  is  here  at  his  best. 
^'     PrSte  ^'   ^^'^  ^'^^^^'  ^^'^'^*     Commentary  on  the  Minor 
This  volume  is  probably  the  best  in  the  Lange  series,  and  is  a 
noble  product  of  the  combined   scholarship  of  Europe  and 
America,  valuaole  especially  on  account  of  its  elaborate  intro- 
ductions and  full  citations  of  literature. 

^'     ?nn7'..^-w-    Th'  ^^i^^or   Prophets.^Yol^.    Reprinted  by 

I  unk  and  ^^  agnails.    New  York,  1885.  ^ 

This  is  the  standard  work,  and  no  scholar  can  do  without  it 

Valuable  especially  for  its  citations  of  patristic  interpretation 

and  its  practical  remarks. 

h)  Separate  Books. 
1)  Hosea. 

1.  Cheyne,  T   K.    The  Book  of  Hosea.    Cambridge,  1884. 

An  excellent  little  work. 

2.  Drake,    William.      Notes    critical  and    explanatory    on  the 
Prophecies  of  Jonah  and  Hosea.    CambridgC  1853. 


170  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

3.  Xowack,  W.  Der  Prophet  Hosea  erkldrt.    Berlin,   1880. 

Contains  a  list  of  all  recent  Continental  commentaries  and 
monographs. 

4.  Wuensche,    August.     Der    Prophet     Rosea,    uebersetzt    imd 
erklart  mit  Benutzimg  der  Targiimim,  etc.    Leipsic,  1868. 

This  is  the  most  important  work  on   Ilosea,  published  for 
many  years. 

2)  Joel 

1.  Credner,    K.    A.    Der  Prop>het  Joel,  uebersetzt  und  erklart. 
Halle,  1831. 

Especially  valuable  on  account  of  philological  and  historical 
illustration. 

2.  Diedrich,  J.  Der  Prophet  Joel  kurz  erklart.    Leipsic,  1861. 

Practical. 

3.  Merx,  Adalbert.    Die   Prophetie  des  Joel  imd  ihre  Ausleger 
von  den  altesten  Zeiten  bis  zu  den  Reformatoren.    Halle,  1879. 

Contains  an  elaborate  history  of  interpretation,  and  in  an 
appendix  we  have  the  Ethiopic  text,  edited  by  Dillmann. 

4.  fSchmoller,  Otto.    The  Book  of  Joel.    In  Lange's  Series. 

5.  Wuensche,  August.    Die  Weissagungefi  des  Prophet  Joel,  etc. 
Lepsic,  1872. 

3)  Amos. 

This  is  the  most  neglected  of  the  Minor  Prophets.  No  special 
monograph  of  great  value  has  as  yet  been  written. 

1,  Pusey,  E,  B.     On  Hosea.    In  his  commentary    on  the  Minor 
Prophets. 

One  of  the  very  best  works  on  this  Prophet.  We  cannot  com- 
mend too  highly  Pusey's  Commentary  on  the  Minor  Prophets. 

2.  8chmoller,  Otto.     The  Book  of    Amos    expounded.     In    Lange's 
Series. 

4)  Ohadiah. 

1.  Caspari,  C.  P.     Der  Prophet  Obadjah  ausgelegt.    Leipsic,  1842. 

An  important  work. 

2.  Kleinert,  Paul.     The  Book  of  Ohadiah.    In  Lange's  series. 
Takes  the  very  highest  rank. 

3.  Randolph,  W.  Analytical  Notes  on  Ohadiah  and  Hahakkuk.  London, 
1878. 

5)  Jonah. 

1.  Exell,  Joseph.   Practical  Readings  on  the  Book  of  Jonah.  London, 
1874. 

2.  Fair))airn,  Patrick.    Jonah;   his  life,  character,    and    mission* 
Edinburgh,  1849. 

Takes  the  very  highest  rank. 

3.  Kalisch,  M.  M.    Bihle  Studies.    Part  II.     The  Book  of  Jonah.  Lon- 
don,   1878. 

From  a  Jewish  standpoint,  but  very  valuable. 

4.  Martin,  Hugh.     The  Prophet  Jonah.    London,  1866. 

A  standard  work. 

5.  Perowne,  T.  T.  Ohadiah  and  Jonah.  With  notes.  Cambridge,  1883. 

An  excellent  little  work,  in  Cambridge  Bible  for  Schools  and 
Colleges.    All  these  works  are  published  separately. 

6.  Ilaleigh,  Alexander.    The  Story  of  Jonah.   Edinburgh,  1875. 


LITERATURE  OF  EXEGESIS.  171 

7.  Wright,  W.  The  Book  of  Jonah  in  Four  Semitic  Versions.  Chaldee 
?>;.7,^C'  Aethiopic,  and  Ara])ic.  ^Vith  corresponding  glossaries! 
1\  ilhams  and  Norgate.    London,  1857. 

6.  Mieah. 

1.  Caspari,  C.  F.     Ueher  Mieah,  etc.    Christiania,  1852. 

2.  Cheyne,  T.  K.     The  Book  of  Mieah.    Cambridge,  1882 

An  excellent  little  work. 

3.  Kleinert,  Paul.     The  Book  of  Mieah.    In  Lange's  series. 

The  standard  work. 

7.  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  and  Zephaniah. 

^,9,^  ,y;^ese    books    we   can   recommend  nothing  better  than 
Iveil,  Ivlemert  in  Lange's  Series,  and  Pusey. 

8.  Haggai,  Zeehariah,  and  Malaehi. 

1.     Chambers,  Talbot  W.     T/^e  5oo/j  o/ Zee/iarza/i.   In  Lange's  Series 
1  akes  the  very  highest  rank  as  a  commentary. 

"•  -^^SK^^'A^^^"^^-  ^^'^  nachexilisehen  Propheten.  Erlangen.  Haqaai, 
1860.  Zeehariah,  1861,  Malaehi,  1880.  s  ^^  *» 

3.  Lowe,  W,  II  The  Hebrew  Student's  Commentary  on  Zeehariah. 
London,    1882. 

4.  Moore,  T.  Y.    Haggai,  Zeehariah,  and  Malaehi. 

A  new  translation  with  notes.    New  York,  1856. 

5.  Pressel,  Wilh  Commentar  zu  den  Sehriften  der  Propheten  Haggai, 
ete,    vjrOtha,   1870. 

^'     i^TQ^^^'  ^*   ^'    ^'    ^^^^^^^^^^  ""^  ^^'^  Prophecies.    New  York, 

7.      COMMENTARIES   ON  THE  WHOLE  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

1.  Alford,  Henry.  The  Greek  Testament;  with  a  critical  revised  text 
a  digest  of  various  readings,  marginal  references  to  verbal  and 
idiomatic  usage,  prolegomena,  and  a  critical  and  exegetical 
commentary.  For  the  use  of  theological  students  and  ministers. 
4  vols.  Seventh  edition.    Boston,  1880. 

A  voluminous  and  valuable  work,  in  which  the  author  has 
used  with  skill  the  labors  of  German  scholars  (De  Wette 
Meyer,  Olshausen,  Stier,  Tischendorf).  His  digest  of  German 
New  Testament  exegesis  has  permanent  value. 

2.  Bengel,  John  Albert.    Gnomon  of  the  New  Testament. 

There  are  three  editions  in  English,  all  of  which  are  good. 
It  IS  not  necessary,  to  describe  this  well-known  work.  Its 
equal  cannot  be  found  in  exegetical  literature. 

3.  Meyer,  H.  A.  W.  Critical  and  Exegetical  Handbook.  2  vols.  T.  & 
T.  Clark.  Edinburgh. 

An  American  edition  has  been  republished  by  Funk  and 
^A  agnails. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  voluminous  grammatical  and  exege- 
tical commentaries  published. 

4.  Olshausen,  Hermann.  BiUical  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament. 
6  vols.    New  York,  1863. 

There  are  two  editions  in  English.  Of  a  philosophical  and 
allegorizing  tendency,  without,  however  opposing  the  gram- 


172  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

matical  and  historical  sense.    The  author  often  shows  a  pro- 
found preception  of  the  meaning  of  Scripture. 

5.  Schaff,  Philip.  A  popular  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament.  By 
English  and  American  Scholars  of  various  evangelical  denomi- 
nations. With  illustrations  and  maps.  4  vols.  New  York,  1879. 

A  royal  work,  valuable  especially  on  account  of  its  illustrated 
cuts  of  Bible  lands,  made  from  recent  photographs.  The  sub- 
stance of  these  notes,  partly  rewritten,  appear  in  the  Internatio- 
nal Commentary  on  the  Eevised  Version,  now  appearing,  also 
edited  by  Dr.  Schaff. 

6.  Webster,  William  and  Wilkinson,  William  F.  The  Greek  Testa- 
ment with  notes  grammatical  and  exegetical.  2  vols.  London, 
1855. 

7.  Wordsworth,  Christopher.  The  New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  in  the  Original  Greek.  With  introductions  and 
notes.    2  vols.    London,  1877. 

A  work  valuable  for  its  patristic  quotations.  Wordsworth 
is  alw^ays  suggestive,  and  it  is  very  seldom  that  he  misses  the 
true  exegesis  of  a  passage. 

8.      COMMENTARIES  ON  THE  GOSPELS. 

The  aim  of  the  writer  is  not  to  give  simply  a  list  of  the  good 
Commentaries  on  each  book,  but  to  designate  the  best,  limiting 
the  number  to  four  or  five.  We  will  not  refer  to  works  already 
mentioned  in  our  list  of  Commentaries  on  the  whole  Bible,  and 
in  the  list  on  the  whole  of  the  New  Testament,  unless  the  work 
so  designated  takes  the  very  highest  rank. 
a)  Matthew, 

1.  Carr,  A.  Cambridge  Greek  Testament  for  Schools.  The  Gospel  ac- 
cording to  St.  Matthew.  With  maps,  notes  and  introduction. 
Cambridge,  1881. 

2.  Keil,  C.  r.  Commentar  ueber  das  EuangeUum  d.  Matthdus.  Leipsic, 
1877. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  contributions,  strictly  evangelical 
and  churchly  and  rich  in  philological  and  historical  matter. 
This  criticism  applies  also  to  his  other  Commentaries  on  the 
the  New  Testament, 

3.  Morison,  James.  A  Practical  Commentary  on  the  Gospel  according  to 
St.  Matthew.    A  new  edition,  revised.    London  and  Boston,  1884, 

One  of  the  most  voluminous,  and  at  the  same  time,  one  of  the 
best  commentaries  on  this  Gospel. 

4.  Nast,  William.  A  Commentary  on  the  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Mark : 
critical,  doctrinal,  and  homiletical,  embodying  for  popular  use 
and  edification  the  result  >  of  German  and  English  exegetical 
literature,  and  designed  to  meet  the  difficulties  of  modern  skep- 
ticism.   Cincinnati,  1864. 

5.  Weiss,  Bernhard.    Das  Matthdus  evangelium,  etc.    Halle,  1876. 

h)  Mark. 

1.  Alexander,  Joseph  Addison,  The  Gospel  according  to  St.  Mark 
explained.    New  York,  1868. 

2.  Keil,  C.  r.  Commentar  ueber  das  Evangelium  Markus  und  Lukas. 
Leipsic,  1879. 


LITKIJATUUK  OF  EXEGESIS.  173 

3.  Maclear,  G.  F.  The  Cambridge  Greek  Testament.  The  Gospel  ac- 
cording to  8t.  Mark.    Cambridge,  1862. 

4.  Morison,  James.  A  Practical  Commentary  on  the  Gospel  according  to 
St.  Mark.     Third  edition,  revised.    London,  1882. 

5.  AVeiss,  Ijernhard.     Das  Markus  evangelium,  etc.    Berlin,  1872. 

c)  Luke. 

1.  Farrar,  F.  W.  The  Cambridge  Greek  Testament.  The  Gospel  ac- 
cording to  St.  Luke.    Cambridge,  1883. 

2.  Godet,  F.  A  Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke.^ew  York,  1881. 
The  standard  work. 

3.  Van  Doren,  W.  H.  A  suggestive  Commentary  on  St.  Luke:  with 
critical  and  homiletical  notes.    2  vols.    New  York. 

Contains  much  that  is  of  great  value,  and  combines  with 
great  skill  the  results  of  the  best  exegesis  of  this  Gospel. 
a)  John. 

1.  Godet,  F.  A  Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John.  3  vols,  Edin- 
burgh. A  reprint  in  two  volumes  is  announced  by  Funk  and 
Wagnalls  of  New  York. 

A  standard  work. 

2.  Keil,  C.  F.     Commentar  ueher  das  Evangelium  d.  John.  Leipsic,  1882. 

3.  Luthardt,  C.  E.  St.  John's  Gospel  described  and  explained  ac- 
cording to  its  own  peculiar  character.  3  vols.  Edinburgh,  1878. 

We  connot  commend  this  work  too  highly. 

4.  Plummer,  A.  The  Cambridge  Greek  Testament.  The  Gospel  accord- 
ing to  St.  John.    Cambridge,  1883. 

5.  Tholuck,  Augustus.  Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John.  Trans- 
lated by  C.  P.  Krauth.    New  York,  1867. 

6.  Yan  Doren,  W.  H.  A  suggestive  Commentary  on  St.  John,  etc.  2 
vols.    London.  1879. 

7.  Westcott,  B.  F.  Commentary  on  St.  John.  In  Speaker's  Commentary, 
but  also  published  separately. 

e)  Miscellaneous  Works  on  the  Gospels. 

1.  Abbot,  Ezra.  The  Authorship  of  the  Fourth  Gospel.  External  Evid- 
ences.   Boston,  1880, 

2.  Andrews  S.  J.  The  Life  of  our  Lord  upon  the  Earth ;  considered  in 
its  historical,  chronological  and  geographical  relations.  Fourth 
edition.    New  York. 

3.  Caspari,  C.  E.  A  Chronological  and  Geographical  Introduction  to  the 
Life  of  Christ,  etc,    Edinburgh,  1876. 

4.  Ebrard,  John  H.  A.  The  Gospel  History;  a  critical  investigation 
in  support  of  the  historical  character  of  the  Four  Gospels. 
Edinburgh,  1863. 

5.  Edersheim,  Alfred,  The  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah,  2  vols. 
Second  edition.    New  York  and  London. 

6.  EUicott,  C.  J,    Historical  Lectures  on  tJie  Life  of  Jesus  Christ, 

etc.  Boston,  1870, 

7.  Farrar,  F,  W.    T?ie  Life  of  Christ.  2  vols.  New  York,  1875, 

8.  Ford,  James.  The  Gospels  illustrated  from  Ancient  and  Modern 
Authors.  4   vols,  London,  1848—52, 


174  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

9.  Gardiner,  Frederic.  A  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels  in  Greek, 
etc.  Andover,  1880. 

Also  in  English. 

10.  Geikie,  Cunningham.  The  Life  and  Words  of  Jesus  Christ. 
2  vols.  Xew  York,  1880. 

11.  Huidekoper,  Frederic.  Indirect  Testimony  of  History  to  the 
Genuineness  of  the  Gosj^els.  New  York,  1879. 

12.  Jukes,  Andrew,  The  Characteristic  Di^erences  of  theFour  Gos- 
pels,iitQ.  London,  1853. 

13.  Luthardt,  C.  E.  St.  John  the  author  of  the  Fourth  G)spel,  etc. 
Edinburgh,  1875. 

14.  Luther,  Martin.  Evangelien-Auslegumi.  Ein  Kommentar  zu 
den  vier  Evangelien.  Aus  seinen  Werken  gesammelt  und 
hearbeitet  von  Eberle.    Stuttgart,  1877. 

15.  Robinson,  Edward.  A  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels  in  Greek. 
Xew  and  revised  edition  by  M.  B,  Riddle.  New  York,  1885. 

Also  in  English. 

16.  Stier,  Rudolph.  The  Words  of  our  Lord  Jesus.  8  vols,  in  four. 
Edinl)urgh,  1869. 

17.  Tholuck,  August.  Commeritary  on  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount, 
etc.    Edinburgh,  1869. 

18.  Thomas,  David.  The  Genius  of  the  Gospel.  A  Homiletic  Com- 
mentary on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.  London,  1864. 

19.  Tischendorf,  Constantine,  Origin  of  the  Four  Gospels,  etc. 
Boston,  1866. 

20.  Trench,  R.  C.     Notes  on  the  Parables.  New  York,  1871. 
Also  Notes  on  the  Miracles.  New  York.  1871. 

21.  Westcott,  Brooke  Foss.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the 
Gosjjels.    Fifth  edition.  London,  1876. 

9.      COMMENTARIES    ON  THE   ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 

a)  Commentaries. 

1.  Alexander,  Joseph  Addison.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  explained. 
2  vols.  New  York,  1875 

2.  Baumgarten,  Michael.  A]wstolic  History  being  an  account  of 
the  development  of  the  Early  Church  in  the  form  of  a  Com- 
mentary on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  3  vols.  Edinburgh,  1854. 

A  most  valuable  work. 

3.  Denton,  W.  A  Commentary  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  2  vols. 
London,  1876. 

4.  Gloag,  Paton  J.  A  Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentary  on  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles.  2  vols.  Edinburgh,  1870. 

Nothing  superior  to  this  work. 

5.  Hackett,  Horatio  B.  A  Commentary  on  the  Original  Text 
of  the  Acts  if  the  Apostles.  Andover,  1877. 

Takes  the  very  highest  rank. 

6.  Humphrey,  AT.  G.     Commentary  on  the  Acts.  London,  1854. 

Exegetical  remarks  upon  the  Greek  text. 

b)  Miscellaneous  Works. 

1.  Arnot,  William,  The  Church  in  the  House.  A  series  of  Les- 
sons in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  New  York,  1873. 


LITERATURE  OF  EXEGESIS.  175 

2.  Conybeare,  W.  J.  and  Howson,  J.  S.  Life  and  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul.  2  vols.  New  York,  1872. 

vStress  laid  on  the  geographical  relations  of  the  Book  of  Acts. 

3.  (Jreen,  Samuel  G.  The  Apostle  Peter.  His  life  and  letters. 
London,  1873. 

4.  Lewin,  Thomas.  Life  and  Epistles  of  8t.  Paul.  Fourth  edi- 
tion, revised.  2  vols.  London,  1878. 

Stress  laid  on  the  historical  relations  of  the  Book  of  Acts. 

5.  Neander,  J.  A.  W.  History  of  the  Planting  and  Training  of 
the  Christian  Church  by  the  Apostles.  New  York,  1865. 

Cannot  be  recommended  too  highly. 

6.  Parker,  Joseph.  Apostolic  Life,  as  revealed  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  3  vols.  Fimk  and  Wagnalls,    New  York,  1885. 

7.  Stier,  Rudolph.    TJie  Words  of  the  Apostles.  Edinburgh,  1869. 

8.  Thomas,  David.  Homiletic  Commentary  on  the  Acts.  London 
1870. 

9.  Vaughan,  Charles  J.  Lectures  on  the  Acts.  3  vols.  London, 
1864. 

10.     COMMENTARIES  ON  THE  EPISTLES  OF  ST.  PAUL. 

a)    The  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians. 

1.  Eadie,  John.  A  Commentary  on  the  Greek  Text  of  the  Epistles 
of  Paul  to  the  Thessalonia7is.  London,  1877. 

Takes  the  very  highest  rank. 

2.  EUicott,  Charles  J.  A  Critical  and  Grammatical  Commentary 
on  St.  PauVs  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians.  With  a  revised 
translation.  Andover,  1865. 

'  The  Greek  text  is  given  at  the  head  of  each  page.  For  one 
who  wishes  to  study  the  Greek  Testament  thoroughly,  no  bet- 
ter guide  can  be  found  than  Ellicott. 

3.  Lillie  John.  Lectures  on  the  Epistles  of  Paid  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians. New  York,  1860. 

6)  Galatians. 

1.  Eadie,  John.  A  Commentary  on  the  Greek  Text  of  Galatians.  Edin- 
burgh, 1869. 

A  very  valuable  work. 

2.  Ellicott,  Charles  J.    On  Galatians.  Andover,  1867. 

See  on  Thessalonians. 

3.  Lightf  oot,  J.  B.  St  PauVs  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  A  revised  text, 
with  introduction,  notes,  and  dissertations.  Andover,  1870. 
Sixth  edition.  London,  1880. 

The  works  of  Bishop  Lightf  oot  take  the  highest  rank. 

4.  Luther,  Martin.    A  Commentary  on  Galatians.  Philadelphia,  1860. 

"I  do  prefer  this  book  of  Martin  Luther  upon  the  Galatians, 
excepting  the  Holy  Bible,  before  all  books  that  I  have  ever 
seen,  as  most  tit  for  a  wounded  conscience"  (Bunyan). 

5.  Meyer,  H.  A,  W.  Critical  and  Exegetical  Hand-hook  to  the  Epistle  to 
the  Galatians.  American  edition,  with  supplementary  notes  by 
Henry  E.  Jacobs,    Funk  and  Wagnalls.  New  York,  1884, 


176  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

6.  Philippi,  F,  A.  Erkldrung  des  Brief es  Pauli  an  die  Galater.  Gueters- 
loh,  1884, 

c)  The  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians. 

1.  Beet,  Joseph  Agar,  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians. 
j^ew  York  and  London,  1883. 

The  work  of  one  of  the  best  scholars  of  England,  represent- 
ing theological  tendencies,  however,  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Church. 

2.  Hodge,  Charles,  An  Exposition  of  1  Corinthians.  Xew  York,  1869. 
An  Exposition  of  2  Corinthians.  New  Y  ork,  1870. 

3.  Meyer,  H.  A,  W.  Critical  and  Exegetieal  Hand-hook  to  the  Epistles  to 
the  Corinthians.  American  edition,  with  supplementary  notes  by 
Talbot  ^y.  Chambers.  :N'ew  Y^ork,  1884. 

Meyer  is  here  at  his  best. 

4.  Stanley,  Arthur  P.  The  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Corinthians.  AYith 
critical  notes  and  dissertations.    Fourth  edition,  London,  1876, 

d)  Romans. 

1.  Beet,  Joseph  Agar,  A  Commentary  on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  Third  revised  edition,  with  new  Appendix.  New  Y^ork, 
1883. 

See  on  Corinthians. 

2.  Godet,  F.  Commentary  on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  Ameri- 
can edition,  revised  by  Talbot  W,  Chambers.  New  Y^ork,  1883. 

Takes  the  very  highest  rank. 

3.  Hodge,  Charles.  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  New 
edition.  Philadelphia,  1870, 

4.  Luther  Martin,  Der  Brief  an  die  Romer.  Aus  seinen  Schriften 
herausgegeben  von  Eberle.  Sluttgart,  1878. 

5.  Meyer,  H.  A.  W.  Critical  and  Exegetieal  Hand-hook  to  the  Epistle  to 
the  ^Romans.  Supplementary  notes  to  the  American  edition  by 
Timothy  Dwight.  New  Y^ork  ,1884. 

6.  Philippi,  F.  A.  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  2  vols. 
Edinburgh,  1878. 

Takes  the  very  highest  rank. 

7.  Eobinson,  Thomas.  A  Suggestive  Commentary  on  St.  Paul's  Epistle 
to  the  Romans,  with  critical  and  homiletical  notes.  2  vols.  New 
Y'ork,  1873. 

8.  Yaughan,  C.  J.  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  With  notes. 
Fifth  edition.  London,  1880. 

For  the  first  reading  of  the  Greek  text,  there  is  no  commen- 
tary superior  to  this,  as  it  is  entirely  Biblical,  illustrating  the 
usage  of  the  Greek,  by  citing  parallel  passages  from  the  Septua- 
gint  and  the  Greek  New  Testament. 

e)    Ephesians. 

1.  Eadie,  John,  Commentary  on  the  Greek  Text  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians.  London,  1861, 

See  on  Thessalonians. 

2.  Ellicott,  Charles  J.  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians.  Andover,  1875. 

See  on  Thessalonians. 


LITERATURE  OF  EXEGESIS.  177 

3.  Harless,  G.  C.  A.  Commentar  ueber  den  Brief  Pauli  an  die  Ephesier. 
Second  edition,  Stuttgart,  1858. 

This  is  simply  a  reprint  of  the  hrst  edition  of  1834.  "For 
accurate  scholarship,  learning,  candor  and  ability,  one  of  the 
best,  if  not  the  very  best  commentary  that  has  ever  yet  appeared 
on  any  single  portion  of  Holy  Scriptures"  i  Ellicott). 

4.  Hodge,  Charles.  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians.  New 
York,  1870. 

5.  Luther,  Martin.  Die  Epistle  an  die  Epheser  ausgelegt.  Aus  seinen 
Schriften  herausgegeben  von  Eberle.    Stuttgart,  1878. 

6.  Meyer,  H.  A,  W.  Critical  and  Exegetieal  Hand-hook  to  the  Epistle 
to  the  Ephesians,  American  edition,  with  supplementarv  notes 
by  Henry  E.  Jacobs.  Funk  and  Wagnalls.    New  York,"l884. 

/)    Philippians,  Colossians,  and  Philemon. 

1.  Cox,  Samuel.  The  Private  Letters  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  John.  London, 
1867. 

2.  Eadie,  John.  Commentary  on  the  Greek  Text  of  tke  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians.  London,  1859.     On  Colossians.  London,  1885. 

Standard  works. 

3.  Ellicott,  Charles  J.  Commentary  on  Philippians,  Colossians,  and 
Philemon.  Andover,  1865. 

See  on  Thessalonians. 

4.  Hackett,  H.  B.  Notes  on  the  Greek  text  of  Philemon.  New  York, 
1860. 

p.  Lightfoot,  J.  B.  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Philippians.  A  revised 
text,  with  introduction,  notes,  and  dissertations.  Second  edition. 
London  and  Cambridge,  1869. 

Epistles  to  the  Colossians  and  to  Philemon,  etc.  Third 

edition.  London,  1879. 
Nothing  superior. 

6.  Thomasius,  D.  G,  Praktische  Auslegung  des  Brief es  Pauli  and  die 
Kolosser.    Erlangen,  1869. 

7.  Vaughan,  C.  J.  Lectures  on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Philippians. 
Fourth  Edition.  London,  1882. 

g)  Pastoral  Epistles. 

1.  Ellicott,  Charles  J.  A  Critical  and  Grammatical  Commentary  on  the 
Pastoral  Epistles.    With  a  revised  translation.  Andover,  1875. 

This  work  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  theological  student. 

2.  Fairbairn,  Patrick.  The  Pastoral  Epistles.  The  Greek  Text  and 
Translation.  With  introduction,  expository  notes  and  disserta- 
tions. Edinburgh,  1874. 

Takes  the  very  highest  rank. 
h)    Hebrews. 

1.  Bleek,  F.  Der  Hebraerbrief  erkldrt.  Edited  by  Windrath.  Elber- 
feld,  1868. 

An  excellent  work. 

2.  Davidson,  A.  B.  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  with  introduction 
and  notes.  Edinburgh,  1882. 


178  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

3.  Delitzseh,  Franz.  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  2  vols. 
Edinburgh,  1880. 

4,  Kay,  William.  On  Hebrews.  In  Speakers  Commentary. 

A  most  excellent  work. 
5      Luenemann,  G.     Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentary  on  Hebrews. 
Edinburgh,  1882. 
Worthy  to  form  a  continuation  of  Meyer's  Commentary. 

11.     COMMENTARIES  ON  THE  SEVEN    GENERAL  EPISTLES. 

a)  James. 

1.  Neander,  A.    Scriptural  Exposition  of  1  John,  Philippians,  and 
the  Epistle  of  James.  Xew  York,  1859. 

2.  Stier,  Rudolph.    The  Words  of  the  Risen  Saviour,  and  Commen- 
tary on  James.  Edinburgh,  1869. 

3.  Van  Oosterzee,  J.  J.     The  Epistle  General  of  James,    In  Lange's 
Series. 

h)     The  Epistles  of  St.  John. 

1.  Candlish,  Robert.  The  first  Epistle  of  John  expounded  in  a  series  of 
Lectures.  Third  edition.  Edinburgh,  1877.  • 

2.  Cox,  Samuel.     The  Private  Letters  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  John.  London, 
18B7. 

3.  Ebrard,  J.  H.  A.  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  John,  Edinburgh, 

1860. 

4.  Haupt,  Erich.     The  first  Epistle  of  St.  John.    A  Contribution   to 
Biblical  Tht-ology.  Edinburgh,  1879. 

5.  Westcott,  Ikooke  Foss.  The  Epistles  of  St.  John.  The  Greek  Text, 
with  notes  and  essays.  London,  1883. 

c)     The  Epistles  of  Peter  and  Jude. 

1.  Eronmueller,  G.  F.  C.     The  Epistles  General  of  Peter  and  Jude.  In 
Lange's  series. 

2.  Gardiner,  Frederic.     A  Commentary  upon  the  Epistle  of  St  Jude,  etc. 
Boston,  1856. 

3.  Keil,  Carl  Friedrich.      Commentar  ueber  die  Briefe  des  Petrus  und 
Judas,  Leipsic,  1883. 

4      Lillie,  John.  Lectures  on  the  First  and  Second  Epistles  of  Peter.  New 
York,  1869. 

5.  Luther,  Martin.     A  Commentary  upon  the  two  Epistles  of  Peter  and 
Jude.  New  York. 

6.  Flumptre,  E.  H.  The  General  Epistles  of  Peter  and  Jude.  With  notes 
and  introduction.  Cambridge,  1879. 

In  the  Cambridge  Bible  for  Schools. 

12.      COMMENTARIES  ON  THE  BOOK   OF  REVELATION. 

1.  Auberlen,  Carl  A.      The  Prophecies  of  Daniel  and  the  Revelation  of 
St.  John,  viewed  in  their  mutual  relation,  etc.  Edinburgh,  1856. 

2.  Elliott,  C.  B,    HorcB  Apocalypticce,  or  a  commentary  on  the  Apo- 
calypse.   4  vols.  London,  1862. 


LITERATURE  OF  EXEGESIS.  179 

3.  Gel )hardt  Hermann.  The  Doctrine  of  the  Apocalypse,  and  its  rela- 
tions  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Gospel  and  the  Epistles  of  John, 
-bidinbiir^h,  1883. 

4.  Godet,  F.    Biblical  Studies  on  the  New  Testament.  New  York,  1877. 

5.  Hengstenber^  E.  W.  The  Revelation  of  St.  John  expounded.  2  vols. 
Edinburgh,  18o7. 

B.     Kliefoth,  H.    Die  Offenbarung  des  Johannes.    Leipsic,  1874. 

7.  Lee,  William.  The  Revelation  of  St.  John.  In  Speaker's  Com- 
mentary. 

8.  Seiss  Joseph  A.  The  Apocalypse.  A  series  of  special  Lectures  on 
(11  }?^^^s^"9*^^  ^*"  '^^•^^^^  Christ.     With  a  text.    3  vols.    Phila- 

9.  Treinch,  Richard  C.  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Seven  Churches 
m  Asia.    New  York,  1872. 

10.  Williams,  Isaac.  The  Apocalypse,  with  notes  and  Reflections.  Lon- 
don, 18o2. 


INDEX. 


xlbelard,  58,  59 

Activity  and  religion,  20 

Aesthetics,  value  of  study  of,  40, 
53;  books  on,  55 

Analogy  of  Faith,  143-145 

Ansel  m,  59 

Antilegomena,  the.  Ill,  112 

Antiquities,  Bil)lical,  69,  94,  95; 
literature  of,  97 

Apocryphal  books,  of  Old  Testa- 
ment, 68 

Apologetics,  11,  39 

Aral)ic,  79;  literature  of,  81 

xlrchieologv,  Biblical,  7,  69,  91- 
95;  literature  of,  96-101 

ArchcTology,  Christian,  10 

Assyrian  literature,  82 

Bacon,  philosophy  of,  42 

Bible.    See  Holy 'Scriptures 

Biblical  Archaeology,  Geogra- 
phy, Topography,  etc.  See 
Archaeology,  etc. 

Biographies,  34,  35 

Calvinism,  18 

Canonics  8, 9, 69, 101,  102;  litera- 
ture of,  109 

Catechetics,  12 

Chaldee  language,  70,  79;  litera- 
ture of,  80 

Character,  formation  of,  27-31; 
books  on,  34,  35 

Christianity  compared  with  Ju- 
daism and  Heathenism,  18 

Church,  the  relation  of  minister 
to,  21;  theology  related  to,  21 

Church  Plistory,  divisions  of,  9, 
10 

Church  Polity,  13 

Classics,  importance  of  the  study 
of  the,  39 

Collegiate  Studies,  23, 24 

Commentaries,  select  list  of,  159- 
180 

Commenting,  rules  for,  157 

Concordances,  90 

Criticism,  Biblical,  69,  110-115; 
literature  of,  116-122 


Criticism,  higher,  69,  113,  115 

textual,  69,  113-115; 
rules  of,  115;  literature  of,  118, 
119 

Deism,  51 

Descartes,  philosophy  of,  43 

Devotional  books,  35, 36 

Diaconics,  13 

Dictionaries  of  the  Bible,  96,  97 

Doctrinal  Hermeneutics,  150-155 

Doctrines,  history  of,  10 

Dogmatics,  11 

Domestic  Antiquities  of  the 
Jews,  94;  literature  of,  100 

Education,  how  to  use  the  ad- 
vantages of,  24-26 

Egyptian  literature,  82 

Emotion  and  religion,  20 

Encyclopaedia,  definition  of,  1. 
See  Theological  Encyclopaedia 

Ethics,  11;  ])Ooks  on,  55 

Ethiopic,  79;  literature  of,  82 

Ethnography,  Biblical,  12 

Evangelistics,  12 

Exegesis,  65, 66;  sciences  auxil- 
iary to,  6;  definition  of,  156; 
methods  of,  156;  literature  of, 
159-180 

Exegetical  Theology,  5,  7-9,  65; 
definition  of,  66 

Exercise,  13 

Exposition  of  Scriptures,  157 

Foreign  missions,  12 

Geography,  Biblical,  69,  92,  93; 
literature  of,  93,  97,  98 

German,  knowledge  of,  impor- 
tant, 78 

Grammars,  Greek,  87,  88 

Grammatical  school  of  interpre- 
tation, 125,  126 

(rraiiimatical  hermeneutics,  lSl- 
i37 

Greek  of  the  Xew  Testament, 
70,  83-86;  helps  to  the  study 
of,  87-9 1 

Greek  Testament,  editions  of, 
116-117 


182 


THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Greek,  text-])ooks  in,  87,  88 
Gybernetics,  13 
Hagenbach,  system  of,  2,  4-6 
Health,  importance  of  to  stu- 
dent, 3 1 
Heathenism,  1 8 
Hebrew  Correspondence  school, 

75 
Hebrew  Bible,  editions  of,  116 
Hebrew  language,  70-74;  know- 
ledge of  indispensable  to  th(^o- 
logian,  70,  7l;   characteristics 
of,  72;  literature  of,  73;  history 
of  study  of,  73,  74;  helps  to  the 
study  of,  75-78 
HermencLitics,  9,68,  ;23-156; 
psychological,  129,  l30; 
grammatical,  131-136; 
historical,  l37-  42; 
scriptural,  43-i49; 
doctrinal,   50-1 55; 
literature  of,  i55,  !56 
Historical  school  of  interpreta- 
tion, 125,  126 
Historical    Hermeneutics,    l37- 

143. 
Historical  Theology,  5,  9,  .0,  65 
History,  importance  of  the  study 

of,  39 
History  of  Old  Testament,  7 
of  New  Testament,  8 
History  of  Philosophy,  54,  57 
Hobbes,  philosophy  of,  42,  43 
Holy  Scriptures,  as  the  object  of 
Exegesis,  66 

inspiration  of,  66,  151-155; 
original  languages  of,  70; 
moral    and     intellectual 
character  of,  148-150; 
Homiletics,  12 
Home  missions,  13 
Inspiration  of  Bible,  66,  151-155 
Interna]    vocation  to  ministry, 

13-15 
Interpretation,  science  of,  123- 

156 
Interpreter,  dispositions    neces- 
sary to  the,  130 
Introduction  to  Old  Testament, 
7,  102, 103;  to  New  Testament, 
8, 104-106;  Biblical, 69, 101-109; 
literature  of,  107-109 
Isagogics,  69,  101-109 
Judaism,  18 


Knowledge  and  Religion,  19 

Latin,  knowledge  of  necessary,  78 

Leibnitz,  philosophy  of,  44 

Lexicons,  Greek,  89 

Literature  of  Jews,  95 

Liturgies,  12 

Logic,  study  of,  53;  books  on,  55 

Logical  school  of  interpretation, 
125 

Luther,  59 

Lutherauism,  61;  contrasted 
with  Calvinism,  18 

Materialism,  51 

Mathematics,  value  of  the  study 
of,  39 

Metaphysics,  study  of,  53;  Ijooks 
on,  56 

Methodology,  definition  of,  4 

Minister,  description  of  a  true, 
l6;  three- fold  task  of  the,  20; 
as  related  to  the  Church,  21 

Ministerial  education,  books  on, 
33 

Ministerial  office,  character  of, 
16,  17,  i9 

Ministry,  choice  of,  13,  14 
motives  for  entering,   14,  15; 
internal  vocation  to,  13, 14, 15, 
16,   17;  external  vocation  to, 
16;  what  it  teaches,  17,  18 

Missions,  12,  13 

Moral  and  intellectual  character 
of  the  Bible,  148-150 

Moral  philosophy,  books  on,  55 

Motives  for  entering  ministry, 
14,  15 

Music,  value  of  study  of,  40 

Mysticism,  59,  60;  books  on,  63; 

Natural  History  of  the  Bible, 
93,94;  literature  of,  100 

Natural  Theology,  books  on, 
56,57 

Naturalistic  school  of  interpre- 
tation, 125 

New  Testament,  introduction 
to,  8;  biblical  history  of,  8; 
character  of,  69;  language  of, 
70,  71;  biblical  theology  of,  8; 
relation  to  Old,  67;  literature 
of  textual  criticism  of,  118 

Old  Testament,  doctrine  of,  7,  8; 
relation  to  the  New,  67;  char- 
acter of,  68;  division  of,  67;  in- 
troduction to,  7;   archaeology 


THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


183 


of,  7;  history  of,  7;  theolog-y  of, 
8;  literature  of  textual  (-riti- 
cism  of,  118 

Original  composition,  26 

Pantheism,  51,  52 

Parallels  of  ideas,  145—147 

Pastoralics,  13 

Philology,  importance  of  the 
study  of,  38,  39;  definition  of 
Sacred,  69,  70 

Philosophy  as  related  to  theo- 
logy, 41—54. 

importance  of  the  study  of,  45 
—49,  method  of  the  study  of, 
46—49;  study  of  history  of,  54; 
booivs  on  the  history  of,  57 

Pietism,  60;  books  on,  63 

Pietistic  school  of  interpreta- 
tion, 125 

l^olitical  Antiquities  of  the  Jews, 
94;  literature  of,  101 

Polyglots,  119,  120 

Practical  Theology,  6,  11—13,  65 

Protestantism  and  Romanism 
contrasted,  18 

Psychology,  study  of,  53;  books 
on,  54 

Rationalism,  58;  books    on,  63 

history  of,  64 
Reading,  proper  method  of  25, 
26,  31;  literature  on  subject  of. 

Religion,  nature  of,  17—20;  de- 
finition of,  19,  20;  historical 
forms  of,  18;books  on  the  phi- 
losophy of,  56 

Revelation  and  inspiration,  con- 
trasted, 151 

Romanism,  18 

Sacred  Antiquities  of  the  Jews, 
94,  95 

Samaritan,  79;  literature  of,  82 

Sanscrit,  79;  literature  of,  83 

Schleiermacher,    philosophy  of. 

Scholasticism,  41 
Science,  physical,  69,  93,  94 
Scriptures.    See  Holv  Scriptures 
Semitic  dialects,  78—83 


Semitic   family  of'languages,  71 
Sense  of  Scripture,  not  double, 

126—129 
Septuagint,  editions  of,  121 
Spinoza,  philosophy  of,  44 
Students,  formation  of  character 
of,  27— 31  •  relation  to  his  pro- 
fessors, 28;  spirit  in  which  he 
should  prosecute    his  studies, 
28,  29;  must    understand    the 
tendencies  in  theology,  61,  62 
Supranaturalism,  59;  books  on, 

63 
Symbolics,  10 

Syriac,  79;  literature  of,  80,  81 
Systematic  Theology,  6,  11,  65, 
Testament,  meaning  of,  67.    See 

Old  and  Xew  Testament 
Theological  Encyclopaedia,  defi- 
nition of,  1 ;  division  of  Hagen- 
bach,  4—6;  of  Zockler,  7—13; 
errors  to  be  avoided  in  study 
of,  4;  literature  of,  2,  3,  32;  im- 
portance of  study  of,  24;  place 
of,  in  study  of  theology,  3 
Theological  School,  22,  23 
Theology  study  of,  22;  related 
to  the  Church,  2l;  a  positive 
science,  37;  relation  to  prepa- 
ratory culture,  38;  to  the  fine 
arts,  40;  to  philosophv,  41—49; 
tendencies  in,  57— 6i ;  divisions 
of,  65, 
Tobacco,  use  of,  29,  30 
Topography,  Biblical,  93;  litera- 
ture of,  99; 
Travel,  books  of,  99,  ,00 
Unionism,  6[ 
Unity  of  sense  of  Scripture,  126 

—  129 
University  Studies,  23,  24 
Various  readings,  11 4 
Vocation,  internal,  13—15 

external,  ^6 
Vulgate,  editions  of,  12 1 
Writing,  rules  for,  26 
Zockler,  system  of,  4, 5,  7—1 3 
Zwingli,  59 


ERRATA. 

Page  47,  line  24,  read  any  one  for  one  any. 

"   115,  omit  line*  2  and  3. 
All  other  typographical  mistakes  are   of  such  a  character  that  they  can 
easily  be  corrected. 


